Since its first publication in 1974, Use YourHead has acquired the status of a classic.Translated into twelve languages, withworldwide sales well in excess of 250,000,Tony Buzan's book has helped scores ofpeople to understand the true capacity of thehuman brain and realise and develop many ofthe abilities that normally lie dormant.Now in a new and revised edition of hisclassic bestseller, Tony Buzan explains thelatest discoveries about the brain and helpsyou to understand more clearly how yourmind works. Fully illustrated in colour andblack and white, with tests and exercisesdesigned to improve your reading power andmemory, Use Your Head will help you to studymore effectively, solve problems more readilyand develop your own ways of thinking.
Tony Buzan has produced a wide range ofbooks and television programmes on thebrain, learning, memory, time managementand associated fields.His current activities are devoted to furtheringour knowledge in these rapidly evolving areas.He is at the moment preparing books on thebrain's creative potential, the intelligence andconsciousness of animals, the family as alearning unit, human aging, and the educationof the baby.He has recently produced an award-winningvideo package consisting of a six-hour tapewith manual, which is being widely distributedthroughout Europe to the business world.In addition to writing a number of volumes ofpoetry, he has also completed a programmeenabling instructors to teach others how tolearn, and is working on national andmultinational educational programmes.Cover illustration by Stuart HughesPhotograph of the author by Studio Tranan AB(HakanMalback)CN 9046
Cover illustration by Stuart Hughes
Photograph of the author by Studio Tranan AB
(HakanMalback)
CN 9046
YOUR
HEAD
Tony
Buzan
GUILD PUBLISHING
LONDON
Other books by Tony Buzan:
Speed Memory
Speed Reading
Spore One
Advanced Learning and Reading - Manual
(with Bernard Chibnall)
The Evolving Brain
(with Terry Dixon)
Make the Most of Your Mind
Videotapes:
Business Brain
Audiotapes:
The Brain/Memory
Based on Use Your Head -a BBC series of ten television
programmes produced by Nancy Thomas.
Acknowledgement: the Illustration on page 12 is from
'The organisation of the brain' (page 102) by Walle J. H.
Nauta and Michael Feirtag, copyright © September
1979 by SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN Inc. All rights reserved.
The Illustrations on pages 12,14 and 97-100 were drawn
by Lorraine Gill.
© Tony Buzan 1974,1982,1984
First published 1974
This edition published 1984 by Book Club Associates
by arrangement with BBC Publications
Set in Ehrhardt 10/12 by Phoenix Photosetting
Printed in England by Mackays of Chatham Ltd
to
YOU
and
to my beloved
Mum and Dad,
Jean and Gordon Buzan
With thanks to all those whose effort and
co-operation enabled me to write this book:
Zita Albes; Astrid Andersen; Jeannie Beattie;
Nick Beytes; Mark Brown; Joy Buttery;
my brother, Barry Buzan; Bernard Chibnall;
Steve and Fanny Colling;
Susan Crockford; Tricia Date; Charles Elton;
Lorraine Gill; Bill Harris;
Brian Helweg-Larsen;
Thomas Jarlov; Trish Lillis; Hermione Lovell;
Annette McGee; Joe McMahon;
Khalid Ranjah; Auriol Roberts;
Ian Rosenbloom;
Caitrina Ni Shuilleabhain;
Robert Millard Smith; Chris and Pat Stevens;
Jan Streit; Christopher Tatham;
Lee Taylor; Nancy Thomas; Sue Vaudin;
Jim Ward; Bill Watts; Gillian Watts.
Introduction 9
1 Your mind is better than you think 11
Man's understanding of his own mind
Your two brains
New discoveries
Interconnections of the brain's neurons
Why our performance does not match our potential
IQ. tests - the limitations
The excellence of the brain demonstrated: the human baby
2 Reading more efficiently and faster 25
Reading and learning problems
Reading and learning defined
Why reading problems exist
Misconceptions about reading and speed reading;
how they arise
The eye
Perception during reading and learning
Improvement for the slow reader
Advantages of fast reading
Advanced reading techniques
Metronome training
3 Memory 43
Questions on memory
Recall during a learning period
Recall after a learning period
Review techniques and theory
Review, mental ability and age
Memory systems
The Number-Rhyme system
Key words and concepts in remembering
4 Noting 71
A Keywords 71
Exercise - key words; standard responses
Key words and concepts - creative and recall
Multi-ordinate nature of words
Individual's interpretation of words
Memory - a comparison between standard note
and key word noting
B Mind maps for recall and creative thinking 86
Exercise
Linear history of speech and print
Contrast: the structure of the brain
Advanced note taking and mapping techniques
C Mind maps - advanced methods and uses 106
Models for the brain
Technology and new insights into ourselves: the hologram as
a model for the brain
Advanced mind map noting
Wider application of mapping techniques
Transforming for speeches and articles
Note taking from lectures
Creative mind maps for meetings
5 The Buzan Organic Study Method 117
A Introduction 117
Problems of 'getting down' to study
Reasons for fear and reluctance when approaching study
books
Problems arising from the use of standard study techniques
New study techniques
Study planned to suit the individual's needs
B. Preparation 127
The best use of time
Defining the areas and amount of study
Distribution of the student's effort
Planning approach to the new subject
Defining reasons for study and goals to be achieved
C. Application 137
Study overview
Preview
Inview
Review
Summary of the Buzan Organic Study Method
Bibliography 152
Index 154
Introduction
Use Your Head is written to help you do just that. By the time you
have finished the book you should understand much more about
how your mind works and how to use it to the best advantage, be
able to read faster and more efficiently, to study more effectively,
to solve problems more readily and to increase the power of your
memory.
This introductory section gives general guide lines about the
book's contents, and the ways in which these contents are best
approached.
The chapters
Each chapter deals with a different aspect of your brain's func-
tioning. First the book outlines the most up-to-date information
about the brain and then applies this information to the way in
which your vision can be best used.
Next, a chapter explains how you can improve memory both
during and after learning. In addition a special system is intro-
duced for the perfect memorisation of listed items.
The middle chapters explore the brain's internal 'maps'. This
information about how you think is applied to the way in which
you can use language, words and imagery for recording, organis-
ing, remembering, creative thinking and problem solving.
The last chapters deal with the new Organic Study Method
which will enable you to study any subject ranging from English
to Higher Mathematics.
In the centre of the book you will find mind maps which you
are advised to look at before reading each chapter - they serve as
a preview/review summary.
Your effort
It is essential that you practise if you wish to be able to use effec-
tively the methods and information outlined. At various stages in
the book there are exercises and suggestions for further activity.
USE YOUR HEAD
In addition you should work out your own practice and study
schedule, keeping to it as firmly as possible.
Personal notes
At the end of each chapter you will find pages for 'Personal
Notes'. These are for any odd jottings you might wish to make
during reading and can also be used when you discover relevant
information after you have 'finished' the book.
Bibliography
On page 152 you will find a special list of books. These are not
just books of academic reference, but include books which will
help you develop your general knowledge as well as giving you
more specialised information concerning some of the areas co-
vered in Use your head.
The Time-Life books give clear and graphic accounts of such
topics as Vision and the Mind, and can be used most effectively
for family reading and study.
My own book, Speed memory, is a combination of the special
memory techniques for recalling lists, numbers, names and
faces, etc. It should be used in conjunction with the information
from the Memory chapter.
You and yourself
It is hoped that Use your head will help you to expand as an indi-
vidual, and that through an increasing awareness of yourself you
will be able to develop your own ways of thinking.
Each person using information from this book starts with
different levels of learning ability, and will progress at the pace
best suited to him. It is important therefore to measure improve-
ment in relation to yourself and not to others.
Although much of the information has been presented in con-
nection with reading, formal noting and studying, the complete
application is much wider. When you have finished and reviewed
the book, browse through it again to see in which other areas of
your life the information can be helpfully applied.
10
I.
Your mind
is better than
you think
Fig I The brain
Source: SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN (sec acknowledgements for details)
Since I wrote the introductory chapter on the brain for the first
edition of Use Your Head in 1974, research in that area has been
exploding with new and exciting discoveries. Rather than stating,
as I did then, that 'only in the last 150 years' has the bulk of pro-
gress been made in this area, I can now state that only in the last
ten years has the bulk of our knowledge been accumulated. This
seems extraordinarily late when you consider that homosapiens
appeared on earth 3,500,000 years ago. Bear in mind, however,
that mankind has only known the location of its brain for the last
500 years. In some ways this is not surprising. Consider for a
moment that you have no idea where your brain is to be found,
and a friend asks: 'Where is the centre of your feelings, emo-
tions, thoughts, memories, drives and desires located?'. You, like
12
YOUR MIND IS BETTER THAN YOU THINK
most others (including Aristotle!) might quite rationally decide
that your brain was located in the heart and stomach area, be-
cause that is where you experience the direct physical mani-
festation of mental activity most regularly and dramatically.
If, even now, as we pursue with computers and electron
microscopes what must be the most elusive quarry man has ever
chased, we must still admit that the sum total of the knowledge
we have acquired today is probably less than 1% of what there is
to know. Just when tests seem to prove that the mind works in a
given way, along comes another test which proves that it doesn't
work that way at all, or along comes another human being with a
brain which manages to make the test meaningless.
What we are gathering from our efforts at the moment is a
knowledge that the mind is infinitely more subtle than we pre-
viously thought, and that everyone who has what is ironically cal-
led a 'normal' mind has a much larger ability and potential than
was previously thought.
A few examples will help to make this clear.
Most of the more scientific disciplines, despite their apparent
differences of direction, are all being drawn into a whirlpool, the
centre of which is the mind. Chemists are now involved with the
intricate chemical structures that exist and interact inside our
heads; biologists are struggling with the brain's biological func-
tions; physicists are finding parallels with their investigations into
the farthest reaches of space; psychologists are trying to pin the
mind down and are finding the experience frustratingly like
trying to place a finger on a little globule of mercury; and mathe-
maticians who have constructed models for complex computers
and even for the Universe itself, still can't come up with a formu-
la for the operations that go on regularly inside each of our heads
every day of our lives.
What we have discovered during the last decade is that you
have two upper brains rather than one, and that they operate in
very different mental areas; that the potential patterns your brain
can make is even greater than was thought at the end of the
1960's, and that your brain requires very different kinds of food if
it is to survive, see fig. 2.
In Californian laboratories in the late 1960's and early 1970's,
research was begun which was to change the history of our
USE YOUR HEAD
Fig 2 Front view of the two sides of your brain and their functions.
appreciation of the human brain, and which was to eventually
win Roger Sperry of the California Institute of Technology a
Nobel Prize and Robert Ornstein worldwide fame for his work
on brain waves and specialisation of function.
In summary, what Sperry and Ornstein discovered was that
the two sides of your brain, or your two brains, which are linked
by a fantastically complex network of nerve fibres called the Cor-
pus Collosum, deal with different types of mental activity.
In most people the left side of the brain deals with logic, lan-
guage, reasoning, number, linearity, and analysis etc, the so-
called 'academic' activities. While the left side of the brain is en-
gaged in these activities, the right side is in the 'alpha wave' or
resting state. The right side of the brain deals with rhythm,
music, images and imagination, colour, parallel processing, day-
dreaming, face recognition, and pattern or map recognition.
Subsequent researches showed that when people were en-
couraged to develop a mental area they had previously consider-
ed weak, this development, rather than detracting from other
areas, seemed to produce a synergetic effect in which all areas of
mental performance improved.
At first glance history seemed to deny this finding however,
for most of the 'great brains' appeared very lopsided in mental
terms: Einstein and other scientists seemed to be predominantly
YOUR MIND IS BETTER THAN YOU THINK
'left-brain' dominant, while Picasso, Cezanne and other artists
and musicians appeared to be 'right-brain' dominant.
A more thorough investigation unearthed some fascinating
truths: Einstein failed mathematics at school, numbered among
his other activities violin playing, art, sailing, and imagination
games!
To his imagination games Einstein gave credit for many of his
more significant scientific insights. While daydreaming on a hill
on a summer day, he imagined riding sunbeams to the far extre-
mities of the universe, and upon finding himself returned, 'illogi-
cally', to the surface of the sun, he realised that the universe
must indeed be curved, and that his previous 'logical' training
was incomplete. The numbers, formulas, equations and words
he wrapped around this new image gave us the theory of relativ-
ity - a left and right brain synthesis.
Similarly the great artists turned out to be 'both-brained'.
Rather than note books filled with stories of drunken parties, and
paint slapped haphazardly to produce masterpieces, entries simi-
lar to the following were found:
'Up at 6 am. Spent seventeenth day on painting six of the
latest series. Mixed four parts orange with two parts yellow to
produce colour combination which I placed in upper left-hand
corner of canvas, to act in visual opposition to spiral structures in
lower right-hand corner, producing desired balance in eye of
perceiver.' - Telling examples of just how much left-brain activ-
ity goes into what we normally consider right-brain pursuits.
In addition to the researches of Sperry and Ornstein, the ex-
perimental evidence of increased overall performance, and the
confirming historical fact that many of the 'great brains' were in-
deed using both ranges of their capacity, one man in the last
thousand years stands out as a supreme example of what a single
human being can do if both sides of the brain are developed
simultaneously: Leonardo da Vinci. In his time he was arguably
the most accomplished man in each of the following disciplines:
art, sculpture, physiology, general science, architecture, mecha-
nics, anatomy, physics, and invention. Rather than separating
these different areas of his latent ability, he combined them.
Leonardo's scientific note books are filled with 3-dimensional
drawings and images; but perhaps more interestingly, the final
USE YOUR HEAD
plans for his great painting masterpieces often look like
architectural plans: straight lines, angles, curves and numbers.
It seems, then, that when we describe ourselves as talented in
certain areas and not talented in others, what we are really de-
scribing is those areas of our potential that we have successfully
developed, and those areas of our potential that still lie dormant,
which in reality could, with the right nurturing, flourish.
The right and left brain findings give added support to the
work you will be doing on memory systems, on note taking and
communication, and on advanced mind mapping techniques, for
in each of these areas it is essential to use both sides of your
brain.
As an addendum, it is interesting to note that Dr David
Samuels of the Weizmann Institute estimated that underlying
the brain's basic range of activities, there are between 100,000
and 1,000,000 different chemical reactions taking place every
minute!
We also know that in an average brain there are
10,000,000,000 individual neurons or nerve cells. This figure
became even more astounding when it was realised that each
neuron can interact with other neurons in not just one, but many
ways - At the time I was writing the first edition of Use Your Head
in 1974, it had been recently estimated that the number of inter-
connections might be as many as 10 with eight hundred noughts
following it. To realise just how enormous this number is, com-
pare it with a mathematical fact about the Universe: one of the
smallest items in the Universe is the atom. The biggest thing we
know is the Universe itself. The number of atoms in the Uni-
verse is predictably enormous: 10 with one hundred noughts af-
ter it. The number of interconnections in one brain makes even
this number seem tiny. See figs 3 and 4.
Shortly after the first edition of Use Your Head was published,
Dr Pyotra Anokin of Moscow University, who had spent the last
few years of his life studying the information processing capabili-
ties of the brain, stated that the number one followed by 800
noughts was a gross under-estimation, that the new number
he had calculated was conservative due to the relative clumsiness
of our current measuring instruments in comparison to the in-
credible delicacy of the brain, and that the number was
16
YOUR MIND IS BETTER THAN YOU THINK
10,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,
000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000
000,000,000,000,000,000,000
Fig 3 The number of atoms (one of the smallest particles we know
of) in the known universe (die largest thing we know of)- See text on
facing page.
10,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,
000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,
000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,
000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,
000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,
000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,
000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,
000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,
000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,
000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,
000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,
000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,
000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,
000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,
000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,
000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,
000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,
000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,
000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,
000,000
Fig 4 In the late 1960's it was calculated that the number of different
patterns that the 10,000,000,000 individual nerve cells of the brain
could make was this number followed by 800 noughts. Recent
estimates have shown that even this number is too small! See text on
4 · facingpage.
USE YOUR HEAD
Fig 6 The atom - one of the tiniest
entities known. In the tip of a
person's finger there are many
billions of atoms, and in the entire
universe a number equal to 10 with
100 noughts after it.
For the relationship between these facts and
the brain's interconnecting networks, see Figs 3 and 4
and text pages 16 and 20.
not one, followed by 800 noughts, but that the pattern-
making capability of the brain, or 'degrees of freedom' through-
out the brain is 'so great that writing it would take a line of
figures, in normal manuscript characters, more than 10.5 million
kilometres in length! With such a number of possibilities, the
brain is a keyboard on which hundreds of millions of different
melodies - acts of behaviour or intelligence - can be played.'
Other examples of the mind's abilities abound - examples of
extraordinary memory feats, feats of super-strength, and unusual
control of body functions defying the 'laws of science', are be-
coming more widespread. They are now fortunately more
documented, generally recognised and usefully applied.
Even with the mounting evidence a number of people still re-
main sceptical, pointing to the performance of most of us as a
contradiction of that evidence. In response to this objection a
questionnaire was given to people from all areas of life to deter-
mine why this amazing organ is so under-used. The questions
are noted below, and underneath each question is noted the re-
ply given by at least 95 per cent. As you read ask yourself the ques-
tions.
· In school were you taught anything about your brain and how
understanding its functions could help you learn, memorise,
think, etc?
No
· Were you taught anything about how your memory functions?
No.
20
YOUR MIND IS BETTER THAN YOU THINK
· Were you taught anything about special and advanced memory
techniques?
No.
· Anything about how your eye functions when you are learning,
and about how you can use this knowledge to your advantage?
No.
· Anything about the ranges of study techniques and how they can
be applied to different disciplines?
No.
· Anything about the nature of concentration and how to maintain
it when necessary?
No.
· Anything about motivation, how it effects your abilities, and how
you can use it to your advantage?
No.
· Anything about the nature of key words and key concepts and
how they relate to note taking and imagination etc?
No.
· Anything about thinking?
No.
· Anything about creativity?
No.
By now the answer to the original objection should be clear: the
reasons why our performances do not match even our minimum
potentials is that we are given no information about what we are,
or about how we can best utilise our inherent capacities.
A similar reply can be given to those who say that IQ tests
measure our 'absolute intelligence' so therefore they must be right.
Apart from the fact that an IQ score can be significantly
changed by even a small amount of well-directed practice, there
are other arguments against these tests:
First the Berkeley Study on Creativity showed that a person
whose IQ assessment was high was not necessarily independent
in thought; independent in action; either possessed of or able to
value a good sense of humour; appreciative of beauty; reason-
able; relativistic; able to enjoy complexity and novelty; original;
comprehensively knowledgeable; fluent; flexible; or astute.
Secondly, those who argue that IQ. does measure a wide and
absolute range of human abilities have failed to consider that the
test should be concerned with three major areas: 1: the brain
being tested; 2: the test itself; 3: the results. Unfortunately the IQ
protagonists have become too obsessed with the test and the re-
sults and have neglected the real nature of the brain being tested.
21
USE YOUR HEAD
They have failed to realise that their tests do not test basic hu-
man ability, but measure untrained and undeveloped human
performance. Their claims are much like those of an imaginary
surveyor of women's feet sizes in the Orient at the time when
their feet were restricted to make them small. From the crib the
foot was placed in bandages until the woman was nearly full
grown. This was done to stunt the growth and to produce 'dain-
ty' feet.
To assume, however, as the surveyor might have done, that
these measurements represent natural and fully developed bodily
dimensions is as absurd as it is to assume that intelligence tests
measure the natural dimensions of our minds. Our minds, like
the women's feet, have been 'bound' by the way we have mis-
judged and mistrained them, and are therefore not naturally de-
veloped.
Another most convincing case for the excellence of the hu-
man brain, is the functioning and development of the human
baby. Far from being the 'helpless and incapable little thing' that
many people assume it to be, it is the most extraordinary learn-
ing, remembering and intellectually advanced being - even in its
most early stages it surpasses the performance of the most soph-
isticated computers.
With very few exceptions, all babies learn to speak by the time
they are two, and many even earlier. Because this is so universal
it is taken for granted, but if the process is examined more close-
ly it is seen to be extremely complex.
Try listening to someone speaking while pretending that you
have no knowledge of language and very little knowledge of the
objects and ideas the language discusses. Not only will this task
be difficult, but because of the way sounds run into each other
the distinction between different words will often be totally un-
clear. Every baby who has learned to talk has overcome not only
these difficulties but also the difficulties of sorting out what
makes sense and what doesn't. When he is confronted with
sounds like 'koooochiekooochiekoooooooooaahhhhisn'tealove-
lelyli'ldarling!' one wonders how he ever manages to make sense
of us at all!
The young child's ability to learn language involves him in
processes which include a subtle control of, and an inherent
22
YOUR MIND IS BETTER THAN YOU THINK
understanding of, rhythm, mathematics, music, physics, linguis-
tics, spatial relations, memory, integration, creativity, logical
reasoning and thinking - left and right brains working from the
word go.
The reader who still doubts his own abilities has himself
learned to talk and to read. He should therefore find it difficult
to attack a position of which he himself is evidence for the de-
fence.
There really is no doubt that the brain is capable of infinitely
more complex tasks than has been thought. The remainder of
this book will attempt to shed light on a number of the areas in
which performance and self-realisation can be achieved.
Personal Notes
2.
Reading
more
efficiently
and faster
Overview
· Reading and learning problems
· Reading and learning -
definition - the process
· Misconceptions about reading and
speed reading; why they arose
· The eye
· Perception during reading and learning
· Exercises for improving comprehension
and speed
USE YOUR HEAD
Reading and learning problems
In the space below note all the problems you have with reading
and learning. Be strict with yourself. The more you are able to
define, the more completely you will be able to improve.
Note your own definition of the word Reading.
26
READING MORE EFFICIENTLY AND FASTER
Teachers of reading and learning have noted over the past five
years that in each of their classes, the same general problems
arise. Below is the list of those most commonly experienced. The
reader is advised to check his own against these, adding to his
own list any others that apply - there will probably be quite a few.
vision fatigue recall
speed laziness impatience
comprehension boredom vocabulary
time interest subvocalisation
amount analysis typography
surroundings criticism literary style
noting motivation selection
retention appreciation rejection
age organisation concentration
fear regression back-skipping
Each of the problems in the table above is serious, and can by it-
self disrupt reading and learning. This book is devoted to solving
these problems, the current chapter being concerned primarily
with vision, speed, comprehension, time and amount, and the
learning environment.
Before getting down to the more physical aspects of reading I
shall first define the term properly, and in the light of this defini-
tion shall explain why the wide range of problems that exist is so
universally experienced.
Reading defined
Reading, which is often defined as 'getting from the book what
the author intended' or 'assimilating the written word' deserves a
far more complete definition. It can be defined as follows: Read-
ing is the individual's total interrelationship with symbolic in-
formation. It is usually the visual aspect of learning, and contains
the following seven steps:
USE YOUR HEAD
recognition
The reader's knowledge of the alphabetic symbols.
This step takes place almost before the physical aspect
of reading begins.
assimilation
The physical process by which light is reflected from
the word and is received by the eye, then transmitted
via the optic nerve to the brain. See fig 39.
intra-integration
The equivalent to basic understanding, and refers to
the linking of all parts of the information being read
with all other appropriate parts.
extra-integration
This includes analysis, criticism, appreciation,
selection and rejection. The process in which the
reader brings the whole body of his previous
knowledge to the new knowledge he is reading, making
the appropriate connections.
retention
The basic storage of information. Storage can itself
become a problem. Most readers will have experienced
entering an examination room and storing most of their
information during the two hour exam period! Storage,
then, is not enough in itself, and must be accompanied
by recall.
recall
The ability to get back out of storage that which is
needed, preferably when it is needed.
communication
The use to which the information is immediately or
eventually put; includes the very important subdivision:
thinking.
The definition includes consideration of most of the problems
listed on page 27. The only problems not included are those
which are, in a sense, 'outside' the reading process, 'surround-
ings', 'age', etc.
28
READING MORE EFFICIENTLY AND FASTER
Why the problems exist
The reader may justifiably ask at this point why so many people
experience the problems noted.
The answer, in addition to our previous lack of knowledge
about the brain, lies in our approach to the initial teaching of read-
ing. Most of you reading this book who are over twenty-five will
probably have been taught by the Phonic or Alphabet Method.
Others will probably have been taught by either this or by the
Look and Say Method.
The most simplified Phonic Method teaches the child first
the alphabet, then the different sounds for each of the letters in
the alphabet, then the blending of sounds in syllables, and finally
the blending of sounds forming words. From this point on he is
given progressively more difficult books, usually in the form of
series graded 1 to 10, through which he progresses at his own
speed. He becomes a 'silent' reader during the process.
The Look and Say Methods teach the child by presenting him
with cards on which there are pictures. The names of the objects
shown are clearly printed underneath them. Once a child has be-
come familiar with the pictures and the names associated with
them, the pictures are removed leaving only the words. When the
child has built up enough basic vocabulary he progresses
through a series of graded books similar to those for the child
taught by the Phonic Method, and also becomes a 'silent' reader.
The outlines given of the two methods are necessarily brief,
and there are at least fifty other methods similar to these pre-
sently being taught in England and in other English-speaking
countries. Similar problems exist all over the world.
The point about these methods, however, is not that they are
inadequate for achieving their aim, but that they are inadequate
for teaching any child to read in the complete sense of the word.
Referring to the definition of Reading, it can be seen that
these methods are designed to cover only the stage of recognition
in the process, with some attempt at assimilation and intra-
integration. The methods do not touch on the problems of
speed, time, amount, retention, recall, selection, rejection, note-
taking, concentration, appreciation, criticism, analyses, organisa-
tion, motivation, interest, boredom, surroundings, fatigue or
typographic style, etc.
29
USE YOUR HEAD
It can thus be seen that there is justification for the problems
so widely experienced.
Recognition, it is important to note, is hardly ever mentioned
as a problem, because it has been taught adequately in the early
years of school. All the other problems are mentioned because
they have not been dealt with during the educational process.
Later chapters deal with the majority of these problems. The re-
mainder of this chapter is devoted to eye movement, comprehen-
sion and the speed of reading.
READING MORE EFFICIENTLY AND FASTER
Reading eye movements
When asked to show with their forefinger the movement and
speed of their eyes as they read most people move their fingers
along in smooth lines from left to right, with a quick jump from
the end of one line back to the beginning of the next. They nor-
mally take between a quarter to one second for each line.
Fig 8 Assumed reading eye movement as shown by people with no
knowledge of eye movements. Each line is thought to be covered in
less than one second. See text this page.
Two major errors are being made: the movement and the
speed.
Even if the eye moved as slowly as one line per second, words
would be covered at the rate of 600-700 words per minute
(wpm). As the average reading speed on even light material is 250
wpm, it can be seen that even those estimating slower speeds
assume that they cover words much more rapidly than they really
do.
If eyes moved over print in the smooth manner shown above
they would be able to take in nothing, because the eye can see
things clearly only when it can 'hold them still'. If an object is
still, the eye must be still in order to see it, and if an object is
moving, the eye must move with the object in order to see it. A
simple experiment either by yourself or with a friend will confirm
this. Hold a forefinger motionless in front of the eyes and either
feel your own eyes or watch your friend's eyes as they look at the
object. They will remain still. Next move the finger up, down,
sideways and around, following it with the eyes. And finally move
the finger up, down and around, holding the eyes still, or cross
USE YOUR HEAD
both hands in front of your face, at the same time looking at them
both simultaneously. (If you can accomplish this last feat write to
me immediately!) When objects move, eyes move with them if
they are to be seen clearly.
Relating all this to reading, it is obvious that if the eyes are
going to take in words, and if the words are still, the eyes will
have to pause on each word before moving on. Rather than mov-
ing in smooth lines as shown in fig 8, the eyes in fact move in a
series of stops and quick jumps.
Fig 9 Diagram representing the stop-and-start movement of the
eyes during the reading process. See text this page.
The jumps themselves are so quick as to take almost no time,
but the fixations can take anywhere from 1/4 to 1 1/2 seconds. A
person who normally reads one word at a time - and who skips
back over words and letters is forced, by the simple mathematics
of his eye movements, into reading speeds which are often well
below 100 wpm, and which mean that he will not be able to
understand much of what he reads, nor be able to read much.
Fig 10 Diagram showing poor reading habits of slow reader: one
word read at a time, with unconscious back-skipping, visual
wandering, and conscious regressions. See text this page.
It might seem at first glance that the slow reader is doomed,
but the problem can be solved, and in more than one way:
1 Skipping back over words can be eliminated, as 90 per cent of
back-skipping and regression is based on apprehension and is
unnecessary for understanding. The 10 per cent of words that
do need to be reconsidered can be noted as explained in the
chapter on Organic Study, page 117.
2 The time for each fixation can be reduced to approach the 1/4
second minimum - the reader need not fear that this is too
short a time, for his eye is able to register as many as five words
in one one-hundredth of a second.
3 The size of the fixation can be expanded to take in as many as
three to five words at a time.
Fig II Diagram showing eye movements of a better and more
efficient reader. More words are taken in at each fixation, and
back-skipping, regression and visual wandering are reduced.
This solution might at first seem impossible if it is true that the
mind deals with one word at a time. In fact it can equally well
fixate on groups of words, which is better in nearly all ways: When
we read a sentence we do not read it for the individual meaning
of each word, but for the meaning of the phrases in which the
words are contained.
Reading for example, the cat
sat on the
road is more difficult than reading the cat sat on the road.
The slower reader has to do more mental work than the faster
more smooth reader because he has to add the meaning of each
word to the meaning of each following word. In the above exam-
ple this amounts to five or six additions. The more efficient read-
er, absorbing in meaningful units, has only one simple addition.
Another advantage for the faster reader is that his eyes will be
doing less physical work on each page. Rather than having as
many as 500 fixations tightly focused per page as does the slow
reader, he will have as few as 100 fixations per page, each one of
which is less muscularly fatiguing.
33
Yet another advantage is that the rhythm and flow of the faster
reader will carry him comfortably through the meaning, whereas
the slow reader, because of his stopping and starting, jerky
approach, will be far more likely to become bored, to lose con-
centration, to mentally drift away and to lose the meaning of what
he his reading.
It can be seen from this that a number of the commonly held be-
liefs about faster readers are false:
1 Words must be read one at a time: Wrong. Because of our
ability to fixate and because we read for meaning rather than
for single words.
2 Reading faster than 500 wpm is impossible: Wrong. Be-
cause the fact that we can take in as many as six words per
fixation and the fact that we can make four fixations a second
means that speeds of 1,000 wpm are perfectly feasible.
3 The faster reader is not able to appreciate: Wrong. Be-
cause the faster reader will be understanding more of the
meaning of what he reads, will be concentrating on the material
more, and will have considerably more time to go back over areas
of special interest and importance to him.
4 Higher speeds give lower concentration: Wrong. Because
the faster we go the more impetus we gather and the more we
concentrate.
5 Average reading speeds are natural and therefore the
best: Wrong. Because average reading speeds are not natural.
They are speeds produced by an incomplete initial training in
reading, combined with an inadequate knowledge of how the
eye and brain work at the various speeds possible.
Advanced reading techniques
Apart from the general advice given above, some readers may be
able to benefit from the following information which is usually
practised in conjunction with a qualified instructor:
1 Visual aid techniques: When children learn how to read they
often point with their finger to the words they are reading. We
have traditionally regarded this as a fault and have told them to
34
take their fingers off the page. It is now realised that it is we and
not the children who are at fault. Instead of insisting that they re-
move their fingers we should ask them to move their fingers fas-
ter. It is obvious that the hand does not slow down the eye, and
the added values that the aid gives in establishing a smooth
rhythmical habit are immeasurable.
To observe the difference between unaided and aided eye move-
ment, ask a friend to imagine a large circle about one foot in
front of him, and then ask him to look slowly and carefully
around the circumference. Rather than moving in a perfect cir-
cle, his eyes will follow a pattern more resembling an arthritic
rectangle.
Fig. 12 Pattern showing unaided eye movement attempting to move
around the circumference of a circle. See text this page.
Next trace a circle in the air with your finger asking your friend
to follow the tip of your finger as you move smoothly around the
circumference. You will observe that the eyes will follow almost
perfectly and will trace a circle similar to that shown below.
Fig 13 Pattern showing aided eye movement around the
circumference of a circle. See text this page.
35
This simple experiment also indicates what an enormous im-
provement in performance there can be if a person is given the
basic information about the physical function of the eye and
brain. In many instances no long training or arduous practising is
necessary. The results, as in this case, are immediate.
The reader is not restricted to the use of his forefinger as a
visual aid, and can use to advantage a pen or a pencil, as many
naturally efficient readers do. At first the visual aid will make the
reading speed look slow. This is because, as mentioned earlier,
we all imagine that we read a lot faster than we actually do. But
the aided reading speed will actually be faster.
2 Expanded focus. In conjunction with visual aid techniques,
the reader can practise taking in more than one line at a time.
This is certainly not physically impossible and is especially useful
on light material or for overviewing and previewing. It will also
improve normal reading speeds. It is very important always to use
a visual guide during this kind of reading, as without it the eye
will tend to wander with comparatively little direction over the
page. Various patterns of visual aiding should be experimented
with, including diagonal, curving, and straight-down-the-page
movements.
3 High speed perception. This exercise involves turning pages
as fast as possible attempting to see as many words per page as
possible. This form of training will increase the ability to take in
large groups of words per fixation, will be applicable to overview-
ing and previewing techniques, and will condition the mind to
much more rapid and efficient general reading practices. This
high speed conditioning can be compared to driving along a
motorway at 90 miles an hour for one hour. Imagine you had
been driving at this speed, and you suddenly came to a road sign
saying 'slow to 30'. To what speed would you slow down if some-
body covered your speedometer and said 'go on, tell me when
you reach 30'. The answer of course would be 50 or 60 mph.
The reason for this is that the mind has become conditioned
to a much higher speed, which becomes 'normal'. Previous 'nor-
mals' are more or less forgotten in the presence of the new ones.
Fig 14 Illustration showing how the mind 'gets used to' speed and
motion. The same kind of relativistic 'misjudgements' can be used
to advantage to help us learn to learn more adequately. See text pages
36 and 37.
The same applies to reading, and after a high speed practice you
will often find yourself reading at twice the speed without even
feeling the difference. See fig 14.
Motivational practice
Most reading is done at a relaxed and almost lackadaisical pace,
a fact of which many speed reading courses have taken advantage.
Students are given various exercises and tasks, and it is sug-
gested to them that after each exercise their speed will increase
by 10-20 wpm. And so it does, often by as much as 100 per cent
over the duration of the lessons. The increase, however, is often
due not to the exercises, but to the fact that the student's motiva-
tion has been eked out bit by bit during the course.
37
The same significant increases could be produced by guaran-
teeing each student, at the beginning of the course, the fulfil-
ment of any wish he desired. Performance would immediately
equal those normally achieved at the end of such courses - simi-
lar to the unathletic fellow who runs a hundred metres in 10
seconds flat and jumps a six-foot fence when being chased by a
bull. In these cases motivation is the major factor, and the reader
will benefit enormously by consciously applying it to each learn-
ing experience. If a deep-rooted decision is made to do better,
then poor performance will automatically improve.
Metronome training
A metronome, which is usually used for keeping musical rhythm,
can be most useful for both reading and high speed reading
practices. If you set it at a reasonable pace, each beat can indicate
a single sweep for your visual aid. In this way a steady and
smooth rhythm can be maintained and the usual slowdown that
occurs after a little while can be avoided. Once the most com-
fortable rhythm has been found, your reading speed can be im-
proved by occasionally adding an extra beat per minute.
The metronome can also be used to pace the high speed
perception exercises, starting at slower rates and accelerating to
exceptionally fast rates, 'looking' at one page per beat.
The information on eye movements, visual aids and advanced
reading techniques should be applied by the reader to each of his
reading situations. It will be found that these techniques and
items of advice will become more useful when applied together
with information and techniques from other chapters, especially
the last three dealing with the Organic Study Method.
At the end of this chapter are a series of exercises which give
practice in all areas. These exercises should be done in 5 to 20-
minute sessions per day, preferably before any normal reading or
studying. During the first few weeks as much as half-an-hour
per day can be spent profitably. As you become more practised in
the exercises they need be done only when revision is felt neces-
sary.
NB The formula for working out speed in wpm is:
wpm (speed) =
number of pages read x number of words per average page
number of minutes spent reading
Exercises
NB After any wpm calculation enter the number on the graph on page
40.
1 Exercise eye movements over page, moving eyes on horizontal and
vertical planes diagonally upper left to lower right, and then upper
right to lower left. Speed up gradually day by day. Purpose - to train
eyes to function more accurately and independently.
2 Read normally for 5 minutes from a book which you will be able to
continue using. Record wpm on continuing graph page 40.
3 Practise turning 100 pages at approximately 2 seconds per page,
moving eyes very rapidly down the page. (2X2 min. sessions).
4 a Practise as fast as you can for 1 minute, not worrying about com-
prehension.
b Read with motivated comprehension -1 minute.
c Calculate and record wpm on graph.
Repeat as time allows.
5 Use any book (light material) of your choice, preferably one in which
you are interested.
Try for as much comprehension as possible, but realise that exer-
cise is concerned primarily with speed. In this exercise reading
should continue from last point reached.
a Practise-read for 1 minute at 100 wpm faster than your highest
normal speed.
b Practise-read 100 wpm faster than (a).
c Practise-read 100 wpm faster than (b).
d Practise-read 100 wpm faster than (c).
e Practise-read 100 wpm faster than (d).
f Practise-read with comprehension for 1 minute from point reached
at end of (e). Calculate and record wpm on graph
39
See exercises pages39 and 41
This graph should soon be complete. When it is full make another
similar one and keep it in your book.
40
High Speed Practice 1
a Use any easy book. Start from the beginning of a chapter.
b Practise-read with visual aid, three lines at a time at a minimum of
2,000 wpm for 5 minutes.
c Re-read to mark in 4 minutes.
d Re-read to mark in 3 minutes.
e Re-read to mark in 2 minutes.
f Read on from mark, for same comprehension as at (b) for 5 minutes.
g Read for normal comprehension for 1 minute. Record wpm on
graph.
High Speed Practice 2
a Use any easy book, start at the beginning of a chapter.
b Scan for one minute, using visual aid, 4 seconds per page.
c Practise-read from the beginning at minimum of 2,000 wpm for 5
minutes.
d Repeat this exercise when possible.
e As 6g.
Personal Notes
3.
Memory
Overview
· Questions on memory
· Recall during a learning period
· Recall after a learning period
· Review techniques and theory
· The brain and ageing
· Memory systems - those used by the Greeks
and still used by stage performers to
astound audiences
43
Test I
Below these instructions is a list of words. Read each word on this list
once, quickly, in order, and then turn to page 50 and fill in as many of
the words as you can. You will not be able to remember all of them, so
simply try for as many as you can. Read the complete list, one after the
other. To ensure you do this properly use a small card, covering each
word as you read it.
start now
went
the
book
work
and
good
and
start
of
the
late
white
and
paper
Mohammed Ali
light
of
skill
the
own
stair
note
and
rode
will
time
home
44
Next turn to page 50 fill in as many of these items as you can, and
answer the questions which immediately follow on page 50.
Test 2
On page 51 you will find a blank graph. Fill it in with a line which repre-
sents the amount you think your memory recalls during a learning
period. The vertical left-hand line marks the starting point for the
learning; the vertical right-hand line marks the point when learning
stops; the bottom line represents no recall at all (complete forgetting);
and the top line represents perfect recall.
Below are examples of graphs filled in by three people.
These graphs start at 75% because it is assumed that most standard
learning does not produce 100% understanding or recall.
There are of course many other alternatives so now turn to page 51 and
complete the graph for the way in which you think your recall works.
Fig 15 Three examples of graphs filled in to indicate recall during a
learning period.
A who thought his recall of the new information he was understanding
stayed constant during his learning.
45
B who thought he remembered more from the beginning of a learning
period and less from the end.
C who thought he remembered less from the beginning and more from
the end.
Test 3
On page 52 is a blank graph to show the way your memory behaves after
a learning period has been completed. The vertical left-hand line marks
the end point of your learning; there is no right-hand vertical line be-
46
cause it is assumed that the 'afterwards' would be for a few years!; the
bottom line represents no recall at all; and the top line represents per-
fect recall.
The graphs below show three people's assessment of their recall after
learning.
Figi6 Three examples of graphs filled in to show recall after a
learning period has been completed.
B who thought his recall was constant for a little while and then dropped
off fairly steeply.
47
C who thought his memory stayed constant for a while and then dropped
off more slowly, levelling out at a certain point.
As with Test 2 there are many alternatives, so now turn to page 52 and
complete the graph in the way which most closely represents what you
feel to be your normal pattern of forgetting. For the purpose of the exer-
cise you can assume that nothing happens after your learning period to
remind you of the information you learned.
48
Test 4
Here is a list of words next to numbers. As with Test i read each item
once, covering the ones read with a card as you progress down the list.
The purpose of this is to remember which word went with which
number:
4 glass
9 mash
1 watch
6 chair
10 carpet
5 paper
8 stone
3 orange
7 banana
2 sky
Now turn to page 52 and fill in the answers in the order requested.
49
Test responses and further questions
Test 1: responses
When answering the questions, do not refer to the original list
i Fill in as many of the words, in order, as you can.
2 How many of the words from the beginning of the list did you re-
member before making the first error?
3 Can you recall any words which appeared more than once in the list?
if so note them
4 How many of the words within the last five did you remember?
5 Do you remember any item from the list which was outstandingly
different from the rest?
6 How many words from the middle of the list can you remember
which you have not already noted in answers to previous questions?
Test 2: responses
Fill in, as demonstrated in the examples of fig 15 pages 45 and 46, the line
which represents the way your memory recalls during a learning period.
direction of time
Test 3: responses
Fill in the graph below in the way you think your recall behaves after a
learning period has been completed. See examples fig 16 pages 47 and 48.
Test 4: responses
Here are the numbers 1 to 10. Fill in next to each number the word
which originally appeared next to it. The numbers are not listed in the
same order as before. Do not refer back until you have filled in as many
as you can.
1 7
5 4
3 6
8 10
9 2
Score
52
Recall during learning - discussion of Tests i and 2
Test 1 showed how recall functions during a period of learning,
as long as understanding remains fairly constant (the words in
the list were not 'difficult').
In this test virtually everyone has the following results: any-
where between 2 and 8 of the words at the beginning of the list
are recalled; most of the words which appear more than once are
recalled (in this case 'the', 'and', 'of'); one or two of the last five
words are recalled; and the outstanding word or phrase is recal-
led (in this case Mohammed Ali); very few of the words from the
middle are recalled.
This is a pattern of test scores which shows very dramatically
that memory and understanding do not work in exactly the same
way as time progresses - all the words were understood, but only
some were recalled. The differences between the way in which
memory and understanding function help explain why so many
people find they don't recall very much after hours of learning
and understanding. The reason is that recall tends to get pro-
gressively worse as time goes on unless the mind is given brief
rests.
Fig 17 As time goes on, recall of material being learned tends to get
progressively worse unless the mind is given proper rests. See text
this page.
53
Thus the graph requested in Test 2 will be more complex
than the simple examples given. It will probably also be more
complex than the graph you have traced for your own recall be-
haviour during learning. Average scores from Test 1 produce a
graph similar to fig 18.
From the graph it is clear that under normal circumstances
and with understanding fairly constant, we tend to recall: more at
the beginning and ends of learning periods; more of items which
are associated by repetition, sense, rhyming etc.; more of things
which are outstanding or unique; and considerably less of things
from the middle of learning periods.
If recall is going to be kept at a reasonable level, it is necessary
to find the point at which recall and understanding work in
Fig 18 Recall during learning. Graph indicating that we recall more
from the beginning and ends of a learning period. We also recall
more when things are associated or linked (A, B and C) and more
when things are outstanding or unique (O). See text pages 53 and 54.
54
greatest harmony. For normal purposes this point occurs in a
time period of between 20 to 40 minutes. A shorter period does
not give the mind enough time to appreciate the rhythm and
organisation of the material, and a longer period results in the
continuing decline of the amount recalled. As graphed in fig 19.
If a period of learning from a lecture, a book or the mass
media is to take two hours, it is far better to arrange for brief
breaks during these two hours. In this way the recall curve can be
kept high, and can be prevented from dropping during the later
stages of learning. The small breaks will guarantee eight relative-
ly high points of recall, with four small drops in the middle. Each
of the drops will be less than the main drop would have been
were there no breaks. See fig 19.
Breaks are additionally useful as relaxation points. They get
rid of the muscular and mental tension which inevitably builds
up during periods of concentration.
Recall after a learning period -- discussion of Test 3
and answers
In Test 3 you were asked to fill in a graph indicating the way you
thought your recall functioned after a period of learning had
been completed. The examples on pages 47 and 48 were answers
many people have given when asked this question, although a
much wider variety of responses overall was registered.
Apart from those graphed on pages 47 and 48 - other answers
included: straight lines plunging almost immediately to nothing:
variations on the more rapid drop, some falling to 0%, others al-
ways maintaining some per cent, however small; variations on the
slower fall-off, also with some falling to 0% and others main-
taining; and variations on these themes, showing rises and falls of
varying degree. See fig 20.
The surprising truth of the matter is that none of the exam-
ples shown earlier, and none of the estimates shown, are correct.
Fig21 Graph showing how human recall rises for a short while after
learning, and then falls steeply (80% of detail forgotten within 24
hours). See text page 58.
57
They have all neglected a particularly significant factor: recall
after a learning period initially rises, and only then declines, follow-
ing a steeply falling concave curve that levels off and never quite
touches the bottom of the graph. See fig 21.
Once it is realised that this brief rise does take place, the
reason for it can be understood: at the very moment when a
learning period is finished, the brain has not had enough time to
integrate the new information it has assimilated, especially the
last items. It needs a few minutes to complete and link firmly all
the interconnections within the new material - to let it 'sink-in'.
The decline that takes place after the small rise is a steep one
- within 24 hours of a one-hour learning period at least 80 per
cent of detailed information is lost. This enormous drop in the
amount remembered must be prevented, and can be by proper
techniques of review.
Memory - review
If review is organised properly, the graph shown in fig 19 can be
changed to keep recall at the high point reached shortly after
learning has been completed. In order to accomplish this, a
programmed pattern of review must take place, each review
being done at the time just before recall is about to drop. For ex-
ample, the first review should take place about 10 minutes after a
one-hour learning period and should itself take 10 minutes. This
will keep the recall high for approximately one day, when the
next review should take place, this time for a period of 2 to 4
minutes. After this, recall will probably be retained for approxi-
mately a week, when another 2 minute review can be completed
followed by a further review after about one month. After this
time the knowledge will be lodged in Long Term Memory. This
means it will be familiar in the way a personal telephone number
is familiar, needing only the most occasional nudge to maintain
it. See fig 22.
The first review, especially if notes have been taken, should
be a fairly complete note revision which may mean scrapping ori-
ginal notes and substituting for them revised and final copy. The
second, third and fourth etc. review sessions should take the fol-
lowing form: without referring to final notes, jot down on a piece
of paper everything that can be recalled. This should then be
checked against the final notes and any corrections or additions
to what has been recalled should be made. Both notes and jot-
tings should be in the form of Mind Maps as explained on pages
112-114.
One of the most significant aspects of proper review is the
accumulative effect it has on all aspects of learning, thinking and
remembering. The person who does not review is continually
wasting the effort he does put in to any learning task, and putting
himself at a serious disadvantage.
Each time he approaches a new learning situation his recall of
previous knowledge gained will be at a very low ebb, and the
connections which should be made automatically will be missed.
This will mean that his understanding of the new material will
not be as complete as it could be, and that his efficiency and
speed through the new material will also be less. This continu-
ingly negative process results in a downward spiral that ends
in a general despair of ever being able to learn anything - each
time new material is learned it is forgotten, and each time new
material is approached it seems to become more oppressive. The
result is that many people, after having finished their formal ex-
ams, seldom, if ever, approach text books again.
Failure to review is equally as bad for general memory. If each
new piece of information is neglected, it will not remain at a con-
scious level, and will not be available to form new memory con-
nections. As memory is a process which is based on linking and
association, the fewer items there are in the 'recall store', the less
will be the possibility for new items to be registered and con-
nected.
On the opposite side of this coin, the advantages for the per-
son who does review are enormous. The more he maintains his
current body of knowledge, the more he will be able to absorb
and handle. When he studies, the expanding amount of know-
ledge at his command will enable him to digest new knowlege far
more easily, each new piece of information being absorbed in the
context of his existing store of relevant information see fig 22. The
process is much like that of the traditional snowball rolling,
where the snowball gets rapidly bigger the more it rolls and
eventually continues rolling under its own momentum.
60
Review, mental ability and age
The way in which a person reviews has an interesting connection
with popular ideas about the way human mental ability declines
with age. It is normally assumed that IQ scores, recall ability,
ability to see spacial relationships, perceptual speed, speed of
judgement, induction, figural relations, associative memory, in-
tellectual level, intellectual speed, semantic relations, formal
reasoning and general reasoning etc., decline after reaching a
peak at the age of 18 to 25 see fig 23. Valid as the figures produced
may be, two important factors must be noted:
1 The decline over the life-time is little more than 5 to 10 per
cent. When considered in relation to the brain's enormous in-
herent capacity, this is insignificant.
2 The people who took part in the experiments which arrived at
these discouraging figures had been educated traditionally,
Fig23 Graph showing standard results of measuring mental
aptitudes as a person gets older. It is assumed that after reaching a
peak at approximately 18-25, decline is thereafter slow but steady.
See text this page.
61
USE YOUR HEAD
and therefore in most cases would not have been practising
proper learning, reviewing and remembering techniques.
Looking at figure 23 it can be easily seen that such a person's
mental 'conditioning' would have been at a very low level for an
increasing number of years. In other words his real intellectual
capacities would have been in 'cold storage'. It is not surprising
that such an unused mind would do slightly worse after 20 to 40
years of mis- or no use - it is surprising that it still manages to do
as well as it does!
If, on the other hand, the mind were continually used, and its
capacities expanded, the effect on the graph for age would be
dramatic. This can be seen by taking note of those older people
Fig 24 Graphs such as shown if fig 23 are based on statistics from
people taught traditionally. A human being would naturally tend to
improve these capacities with age if taught in a manner that
complemented and nourished the brain's natural functioning.
62
Let us assume that the items to be remembered are:
1 table
2 feather
3 cat
4 leaf
5 student
6 orange
7 car
8 pencil
9 shirt
10 poker
In order to remember these it is necessary to have some system
which enables us to use the associative and linking power of
memory to connect them with their proper number.
The best system for this is the Number-Rhyme System, in
which each number has a rhyming word connected to it.
The rhyming key words are:
1 bun
2 shoe
3 tree
4 door
5 hive
6 sticks
7 heaven
8 gate
9 vine
10 hen
In order to remember the first list of arbitary words it is neces-
sary to link them in some strong manner with the rhyming words
connected to the numbers. If this is done successfully, the
answer to a question such as 'what word was connected to num-
ber 5?' will be easy. The rhyming word for 5, 'hive', will be recalled
64
automatically and with it will come the connected image of the
word that has to be remembered. The numbers, rhyming words,
and items to be remembered can be thought of respectively as
the clothes rail, the hangers, and the clothes in a clothes cup-
board. See fig 25.
The important thing in this and all other memory systems is to
make sure that the rhyming word and the word to be remem-
bered are totally and securely linked together. In order to do this,
the connecting images must be one or many of the following:
exaggerated
The image must be made exceptionally or grotesquely
large, or loud, etc.
absurd
Where possible the linked images should form a new
image which is humorous or ridiculous.
sexual
If sex can be brought in in anyway, bring it in!
vulgar
Things which are obscene are recalled exceptionally
well also!
sensual
As with sex, any of the basic bodily senses will help to
form a memorable image.
moving
A moving image usually lasts longer than a static one.
coloured
Coloured as brightly and gaudily as possible.
imaginative
Imaginative in any other way not yet mentioned.
pure
The two items must be linked together with as few other
items as possible. Linkages which are too witty,
abstract or confused will not help.
It is important, when forming the images, to have a very clear
mental picture in front of your inner eye. To achieve this it is
often best to close your eyes and to project the image on to the
inside of your eyelid.
To make all this clearer, let us try the ten items given.
1 bun table
Imagine a giant bun on top of a fragile table which is in the pro-
cess of crumbling from the weight.
2 shoe feather
Imagine your favourite shoe with an enormous feather growing
out of the inside, preventing you from putting your shoe on.
3 tree cat
Imagine a large tree with either your own cat or a cat you know
stuck in the very top branches frantically scrambling about and
mewing loudly.
4 door leaf
Imagine your bedroom door as one giant leaf.
5 hive student
Imagine a student at his desk, and instead of a book in front of
him, imagine an enormous bee hive with bees circling it and
occasionally attacking him.
6 sticks orange
Imagine large sticks puncturing the juicy surface of an orange
that is as big as a beach ball.
7 heaven car
Imagine all the angels sitting on cars rather than clouds.
8 gate pencil
Imagine a gate made completely out of giant pencils rather than
normal wood.
9 vine shirt
Imagine a vine as large as Jack in the Bean Stalk's bean stalk, and
instead of leaves on the vine, hang it all over with brightly coloured
shirts blowing in the wind.
10 hen poker
Be vulgar!
67
Now fill in as many of the words as you can on the facing page.
With a little practice it would be possible to remember ten out of
ten each time, even though using the same system. The words to
be remembered can, like the clothes they were compared to, be
taken off the hook and other clothes substituted. The words
which must remain constant and which in any case are almost
impossible to forget are the rhyming key words.
As mentioned earlier there are many other systems which are
equally as easy to remember as this simple one but would take
(and already have done) another book to explain. Ones which are
particularly useful include the Major System, which enables re-
call of more than a thousand items in the manner of the Num-
ber-Rhyme System, as well as giving a key for memorising num-
bers and dates, and the Face-Name System which helps prevent
the embarrassing and wide-spread habit of not being able to re-
call either the names or faces of people you have met.
Key words and concepts in remembering
As you will have gathered throughout the development of this
chapter, memory is primarily an associative and linking process
which depends in large part on key words and key concepts
properly imagined.
Although the chapter entitled Memory is coming to an end
the next three chapters on Key words and Creative pattern link-
ages are themselves very closely connected with remembering
and recalling. The information in this chapter should be reconsi-
dered after the following chapters have been completed.
In the spaces opposite write the rhyming key word for the Num-
ber-Rhyme System, and next to it the words used earlier in the
chapter to illustrate the system.
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69
Personal Notes
4.
Noting
A: Key words
Overview
· Exercise key words; standard responses
· Key words and concepts - creative and recall
· Memory - a comparison between
standard note and
key word noting
· Transition from advanced key word
note taking to advanced Mind Map
key word note taking
Exercise and discussion
Imagine that your hobby is reading short stories, that you read at
least five a day, and that you keep notes so that you will not forget
any of them. Imagine also that in order to ensure a proper recall
of each story you use a card filing system. For each story you
have one card for the title and author, and a card for every para-
graph. On each of these paragraph cards you enter a main and a
secondary key word or phrase. The key words/phrases you take
either directly from the story or make up yourself because they
summarise particularly well.
Imagine further that your ten thousandth story is Kusa-Hibari by
Lafcadio Hearne, and that you have prepared the title-and-
author card.
Now read the story on page 73, and for the purpose of this ex-
ercise enter a key recall word or phrase for both the main and
secondary idea for the first five paragraphs only, in the space
provided on page 76.
Kusa-Hibari Lafcadio Hearne
His cage is exactly two Japanese inches high and one inch and a
half wide: its tiny wooden door, turning upon a pivot, will
scarcely admit the tip of my little finger. But he has plenty of
room in that cage - room to walk, and jump, and fly, for he is so
small that you must look very carefully through the brown-gauze
sides of it in order to catch a glimpse of him. I have always to
turn the cage round and round, several times, in a good light,
before I can discover his whereabouts, and then I usually find
him resting in one of the upper corners - clinging, upside down,
to his ceiling of gauze.
Imagine a cricket about the size of an ordinary mosquito -
with a pair of antennae much longer than his own body, and so
fine that you can distinguish them only against the light.
Kusa-Hibari, or 'Grass-Lark' is the Japanese name of him; and
he is worth in the market exactly twelve cents: that is to say, very
much more than his weight in gold. Twelve cents for such a
gnat-like thing!... By day he sleeps or meditates, except while
occupied with the slice of fresh egg-plant or cucumber which
must be poked into his cage every morning... to keep him clean
and well fed is somewhat troublesome: could you see him, you
would think it absurd to take any pains for the sake of a creature
so ridiculously small.
But always at sunset the infinitesimal soul of him awakens:
then the room begins to fill with a delicate and ghostly music of
indescribable sweetness - a thin, silvery rippling and trilling as of
tiniest electric bells. As the darkness deepens, the sound
becomes sweeter - sometimes swelling till the whole house
seems to vibrate with the elfish resonance - sometimes thinning
down into the faintest imaginable thread of a voice. But loud or
low, it keeps a penetrating quality that is weird ... All night the
atomy thus sings: he ceases only when the temple bell proclaims
the hour of dawn.
Now this tiny song is a song of love - vague love of the unseen
and unknown. It is quite impossible that he should ever have
seen or known, in this present existence of his. Not even his
ancestors, for many generations back, could have known
anything of the night-life of the fields, or the amorous value of
song.
73
They were born of eggs hatched in a jar of clay, in the shop of
some insect-merchant: and they dwelt thereafter only in cages.
But he sings the song of his race as it was sung a myriad years
ago, and as faultlessly as if he understood the exact significance
of every note. Of course he did not learn the song. It is a song of
organic memory- deep, dim memory of other quintillions of
lives, when the ghost of him shrilled at night from the dewy
grasses of the hills. Then that song brought him love - and death.
He has forgotten all about death: but he remembers the love.
And therefore he sings now - for the bride that will never come.
So that his longing is unconsciously retrospective: he cries to
the dust of the past - he calls to the silence and the gods for the
return of time ... Human lovers do very much the same thing
without knowing it. They call their illusion an Ideal: and their
Ideal is, after all, a mere shadowing of race-experience, a
phantom of organic memory. The living present has very little to
do with it.... Perhaps this atom also has an ideal, or at least the
rudiment of an ideal; but, in any event, the tiny desire must utter
its plaint in vain.
The fault is not altogether mine. I had been warned that if the
creature were mated, he would cease to sing and would speedily
die. But, night after night, the plaintive, sweet, unanswered
trilling touched me like a reproach - became at last an obsession,
an afflication, a torment of conscience; and I tried to buy a
female. It was too late in the season; there were no more
kusa-hibari for sale, - either males or females. The
insect-merchant laughed and said, 'He ought to have died about
the twentieth day of the ninth month.' (It was already the second
day of the tenth month.) But the insect-merchant did not know
that I have a good stove in my study, and keep the temperature at
above 75°F. Wherefore my grass-lark still sings at the close of the
eleventh month, and I hope to keep him alive until the Period of
Greatest Cold. However, the rest of his generation are probably
dead: neither for love nor money could I now find him a mate.
And were I to set him free in order that he might make the
search for himself, he could not possibly live through a single
night, even if fortunate enough to escape by day the multitude of
his natural enemies in the garden - ants, centipedes, and ghastly
earth-spiders.
74
Yet, after all, to devour one's own legs for hunger is not the
worst that can happen to a being cursed with the gift of song.
There are human crickets who must eat their own hearts in
order to sing.
Key words or phrases for main and secondary ideas from
Kusa-Hibari
main secondary
paragraph i
paragraph 2
paragraph 3
paragraph 4
paragraph 5
Below you will find sample key words and phrases from the notes
of students who have previously done this exercise. Briefly com-
pare and contrast these with your own ideas.
Students' suggested key words and phrases
main secondary
paragraph 1 his cage two Japanese inches
wooden door wooden floor
ceiling of gauze plenty of room
small insect discover whereabouts
NOTING
paragraph 2 cricket Grass-Lark
weight in gold twelve cents
antennae market
Kusa-Hibari gnatlike
paragraph 3 sleep fresh cucumber
clean and well fed pains
occupied meditation
absurd small
paragraph 4 penetrating silvery rippling
music house vibrating
electric bells penetrating
soul hour of dawn
paragraph 5 Love night life
amorous insect merchant
the hills significance
Death love and death
In class situations instructors then circled one word from each
section:
main secondary
paragraph 1 wooden door discover whereabouts
1 weight in gold market
3 occupied pains
4 penetrating hour of dawn
5 love night-life
Students were then asked to explain why, in the context of the
exercise, these words and phrases and not others had been
selected. Answers usually included the following: 'good image
words', 'imaginative', 'descriptive', 'appropriate', 'good for re-
membering', and 'evocative', etc.
77
77
Only one student in fifty realised why the instructors had
chosen these words: in the context of the exercise the series
chosen was disastrous.
To understand why, it is necessary to imagine a time some
years after the story has been read when you are going to look at
the notes again for recall purposes. Imagine that some friends
have played a prank, taking out the title cards of some of your
stories and challenging you to remember the titles and authors.
You would have no idea to start with to which story your cards
referred, and would have to rely solely on them to give you back
the correct images.
With the key words at the bottom of page 77, you would
probably be forced to link them in the following way: 'wooden
door', a general phrase, would gain a mystery-story air when you
read 'discover whereabouts'. The next two keys 'weight in gold'
and 'market' would confirm this, adding a further touch of
intrigue suggesting a criminal activity. The next three key words,
'occupied' 'pains' and 'penetrating' might lead you to assume
that one of the characters, perhaps the hero, was personally in
difficulty, adding further tension to the ongoing plot as the 'hour
of dawn', obviously an important and suspense-filled moment in
the story, approached. The final two keys, 'love' and 'night-life'
would add a romantic or risque touch to the whole affair,
encouraging you to thumb quickly through the remaining key
words in search of further adventures and climaxes! You would
have created an interesting new story, but would not remember
the original one.
Words which seemed quite good at the time have not, for some
reason, proved adequate for recall. To explain why, it is
necessary to discuss the difference between key recall words and
key creative words, and the way in which they interact after a
period of time has passed.
A key recall word or phrase is one which funnels into itself a
wide range of special images, and which, when it is triggered,
funnels back the same images. It will tend to be a strong noun or
verb, on occasion being surrounded by additional key adjectives
or adverbs. See fig 26.
Fig 26 Diagram representing key recall word. See text on opposite page.
A creative word is one which is particularly evocative and
image-forming, but which is far more general than the more
directed key recall word. Words like 'ooze' and 'bizarre' are
especially evocative but do not necessarily bring back a specific
image. See fig 27.
Fig 27 A creative word sprays out associations in all directions. See
text this page.
Apart from understanding the difference between creative and
recall words, it is also necessary to understand the nature of
words themselves as well as the nature of the brain which uses
them.
79
79
Every word is 'multi-ordinate', which simply means that each
word is like a little centre on which there are many, many little
hooks. Each hook can attach to other words to give both words in
the new pair slightly different meanings. For example the word
'run' can be hooked quite differently in 'run like hell' and 'her
stocking has a run in it'.
Fig 28 Each word is multi-ordinate, meaning that it has a large
number of 'hooks'. Each hook, when it attaches to another word,
changes the meaning of the word. Think, for example, of how the
word 'run' changes in different phrase contexts. See text pages 79 and
80
In addition to the multi-ordinate nature of words, each brain
is also different from each other brain. As shown in the first
chapter, the number of connections a brain can make within
itself is almost limitless. Each individual also experiences a very
different life from each other individual (even if two people are
enjoying the 'same experience' together they are in very different
worlds: A is enjoying the experience with B as a major part of it,
and B is enjoying the experience with A as a major part of it).
Similarly the associations that each person will have for any word
will be different from everybody else's. Even a simple word like
'leaf will produce a different series of images for each person
who reads or hears it. A person whose favourite colour is green
might imagine the general greenness of leaves; someone whose
favourite colour is brown, the beauty of autumn; a person who
had been injured falling out of a tree, the feeling of fear; a
80
gardener, the different emotions connected with the pleasure of
seeing leaves grow and the thought of having to rake them all up
when they had fallen, etc. One could go on for ever and still not
satisfy the range of associations that you who are reading this
book might have when you think of leaves.
As well as the unique way in which the mind sees its personal
images, each brain is also, by nature, both creative and sense-
organising. It will tend to 'tell itself interesting and entertaining
stories' as it does for example when we day- or night-dream.
The reason for the failure of the recall and creative words
selected from Kusa-Hibari can now clearly be seen. When each
of the multi-ordinate words or phrases was approached, the
mind automatically picked the connecting hooks which were
most obvious, most image-producing, or the most sense-making.
The mind was consequently led down a path that was more
creative than recall based, and a story was constructed that was
interesting, but hardly useful for remembering.
Fig 29 Showing how mind can follow the 'wrong connections' in a
series of key words. See text this page.
Key recall words would have forced the mind to make the proper
links in the right direction, enabling it to recreate the story even
if for all other intentional purposes it had been forgotten.
Fig30 Direction of correct associations when proper recall key
words have been used. See text this page.
81
Key versus standard notes
The main body of a person's recalling is of this key concept
nature. It is not, as is often assumed, a word-for-word verbatim
process. When people describe books they have read or places
they have been to, they do not start to 're-read' from memory.
They give key concept overviews outlining the main characters,
settings, events and add descriptive detail. Similarly the single
key word or phrase will bring back whole ranges of experience
and sensation. Think for example of the range of images that
enter your mind when you read the word 'child'.
How, then, does acceptance of these facts about key recall
affect our attitude toward the structure of note taking?
Because we have become so used to speaking and writing
words, we have mistakenly assumed that normal sentence struc-
ture is the best way to remember verbal images and ideas. Thus
the majority of students and even graduates have taken notes in a
normal literary fashion similar to the example of a university
student whose notes were rated 'good' by his professor. See facing
page.
Our new knowledge of key concepts and recall has shown that
in this type of notes 90 per cent of the words are not necessary
for recall purposes. This frighteningly high figure becomes even
more frightening when a closer look is taken at what happens
with standard sentence notes:
1 Time is wasted recording words which have no bearing on
memory (estimated waste - 90%).
2 Time is wasted re-reading the same unnecessary words
(estimated waste - 90%).
3 Time is wasted searching for the words which are key, for they
are usually not distinguished by any marks and thus blend in
with other non-recall words.
4 The connections between key words are interrupted by words
that separate them. We know that memory works by associa-
tion and any interference by non recall words will make the
connections less strong.
5 The key words are separated in time by intervening words:
after one key word or phrase has been read it will take at least
82
a few seconds to get to the next. The longer the time between
connections, the less chance there will be of proper connec-
tion being made.
6 The key words are separated in space by their distance from
each other on the page. As with the point made about time,
the greater the distance between the words, the less chance of
there being a proper connection.
You are advised to practise key word and phrase selection from
any previous notes made during periods of study. It will also be
helpful at this point for you to summarise this chapter in key note
form.
In addition, reconsider key and creative words in the light of
the information in the chapter on Memory, especially the section
dealing with mnemonic techniques. Similarly the memory chap-
ter itself can be reconsidered in the light of this chapter, with a
similar emphasis on the relationship and similarities between
mnemonic systems and key and creative concepts.
The review graph is another important consideration. Review
is made much easier when notes are in key form, because less
time is expended, and because the recall itself will be superior
and more complete. Any weak linkages will also be cemented
more firmly in the early stages.
Finally, linkages between key words and concepts should
always be emphasised and where possible simple lists and lines
of key words should be avoided. In the following chapter
advanced methods of key word linking and patterning will be
explained in full.
Personal Notes
B: Mind maps for recall
and creative thinking
Overview
· Exercise
· Linear history of speech and print
· Contrast: the structure of the brain
· Advanced note taking and mapping techniques
86
Exercise
In the space below, and starting immediately after having reached the
end of this paragraph, prepare a half-hour speech on the topic of Space
Travel. Allow no more than five minutes for the task, whether or not you
have finished. This exercise will be referred to later in the chapter,
before which time the problems experienced in performing the task
should also be noted here or in a notebook.
Space travel notes
Problems experienced
Linear history of speech and print
For the last few hundred years it has been popularly thought that
man's mind worked in a linear or list-like manner. This belief
was held primarily because of the increasing reliance on our two
main methods of communication, speech and print.
In speech we are restricted, by the nature of time and space,
to speaking and hearing one word at a time. Speech was thus
seen as a linear or line-like process between people. See fig 32.
87
Print was seen as even more linear. Not only was the individual
forced to take in units of print in consecutive order, but print was
laid out on the page in a series of lines or rows.
This linear emphasis overflowed into normal writing or note tak-
ing procedures. Virtually everyone was (and still is) trained in
school to take notes in sentences or vertical lists. (Most readers will
probably have prepared their half-hour speech in one of these two
ways, as shown in fig33). The acceptance of this way of thinking is so
long-standing that little has been done to contradict it.
However, recent evidence shows the brain to be far more multi-
dimensional and pattern making, suggesting that in the speech/
print arguments there must be fundamental flaws.
The argument which says that the brain functions linearly
because of the speech patterns it has evolved fails to consider, as
do the supporters for the absolute nature of IQ tests, the nature
of the organism. It is easy to point out that when words travel
from one person to another they necessarily do so in a line, but
this is not really the point. More to the point is, the question:
'How does the brain which is speaking, and the brain which is
receiving the words, deal with them internally}
The answer is that the brain is most certainly not dealing with
them in simple lists and lines. You can verify this by thinking of
the way in which your own thought processes work while you are
speaking to someone else. You will observe that although a single
line of words is coming out, a continuing and enormously
complex process of sorting and selecting is taking place in your
mind throughout the conversation. Whole networks of words
and ideas are being juggled and interlinked in order to com-
municate a certain meaning to the listener.
Similarly the listener is not simply observing a long list of
words like someone sucking up spaghetti. He is receiving each
word in the context of the words that surround it. At the same
time he is also giving the multi-ordinate nature of each word his
own special interpretation as dictated by the structure of his
personal information patterns and will be analysing, coding and
criticising throughout the process.
Fig 34 It is the network inside the mind, and not the simple order of
word presentation, which is more important to an understanding
of the way we relate to words. See text pages 88-go.
You may have noticed people suddenly reacting to words you
liked or thought were harmless. They react this way because the
associations they have for these words are different from your
own. Knowing this will help you to understand more clearly the
nature of conversations, disagreements and misunderstandings.
The argument for print is also weak. Despite the fact that we
are trained to read units of information one after each other, that
these are presented in lines and that we therefore write and note
in lines, such linear presentation is not necessary for under-
standing, and in many instances is a disadvantage.
The mind is perfectly capable of taking in information which
is non-linear. In its day-to-day life it does this nearly all the time,
observing all those things which surround it which include
common non-linear forms of print: photographs, illustration,
90
diagrams, etc. It is only our society's enormous reliance on linear
information which has obscured the issue.
The brain's non-linear character is further confirmed by
recent biochemical physiological and psychological research.
Each area of research is discovering that the organism is not only
non-linear but is so complex and interlinked as to defy any final
description.
The brain and advanced noting
If the brain is to relate to information most efficiently the
information must be structured in such a way as to 'slot in' as
easily as possible. It follows that if the brain works primarily with
key concepts in an interlinked and integrated manner, our notes
and our word relations should in many instances be structured in
this way rather than in traditional 'lines'.
Rather than starting from the top and working down in
sentences or lists, one should start from the centre or main idea
and branch out as dictated by the individual ideas and general
form of the central theme.
ig35 Initial ideas jotted around a centre. See text this page.
A mind map such as that outlined in fig 35 has a number of
advantages over the linear form of note taking.
1 The centre or main idea is more clearly defined.
2 The relative importance of each idea is clearly indicated.
91
More important ideas will be nearer the centre and less
important ideas will be near the edge.
3 The links between the key concepts will be immediately
recognisable because of their proximity and connection.
4 As a result of the above, recall and review will be both more
effective and more rapid.
5 The nature of the structure allows for the easy addition of
new information without messy scratching out or squeezing
in, etc.
6 Each map made will look and be different from each other
map. This will aid recall.
7 In the more creative areas of note making such as essay
preparations etc, the open-ended nature of the map will
enable the brain to make new connections far more readily.
In connection with these points, and especially with the last one,
you should now do an exercise similar to your space travel
speech notes at the beginning of this chapter, but this time using
a mind map rather than the more linear methods.
In the space provided on page 94 branch out in the manner
indicated in figure 35 in preparation for a speech on 'Myself.
While doing this exercise a number of things should be noted.
1 Words should be printed in capitals. For reading-back pur-
poses a printed map gives a more photographic, more im-
mediate, and more comprehensive feed-back. The little extra
time that it takes to print is amply made up for in the time
saved when reading back.
2 The printed words should be on lines, and each line should
be connected to other lines. This is to guarantee that the mind
map has basic structure.
3 Words should be in 'units', i.e. one word per line. This leaves
each word more free hooks and gives note-taking more
freedom and flexibility
4 In creative efforts of this nature the mind should be left as
'free' as possible. Any 'thinking' about where things should go
or whether they should be included will simply slow down the
92
process. The idea is to recall everything your mind thinks of
around the central idea. As your mind will generate ideas
faster than you can write, there should be almost no pause - if
you do pause you will probably notice your pen or pencil
dithering over the page. The moment you notice this get it
back down and carry on. Do not worry about order or
organisation as this will in many cases take care of itself. If it
does not, a final ordering can be completed at the end of the
exercise.
Start the exercise now.
Although this first attempt at mapping may have been a little
difficult, you will probably have noticed that the experience is
quite different from that of the first exercise, and that the
problems too may have been quite different.
Problems often noted in the first exercise include;
order organisation
logical sequence time distribution
beginning emphasis of ideas
ending mental blocking
These problems arise because people are attempting to select
the main headings and ideas one after the other, and are
attempting to put them into order as they go - they are trying to
order a structure of speech without having considered all the
information available. This will inevitably lead to confusion and
the problems noted, for new information which turns up after
the first few items might suddenly alter the whole outlook on the
subject. With a linear approach this type of happening is
disruptive, but with the map approach it is simply part of the
overall process, and can be handled properly.
Another disadvantage of the list-like method is that it operates
against the way in which the brain works. Each time an idea is
thought of it is put on the list and forgotten while a new idea is
searched for. This means that all the multi-ordinate and associa-
tive possibilities of each word are cut off and boxed away while
the mind wanders around in search of another new idea.
93
94
With the map approach each idea is left as a totally open pos-
sibility, so that the map grows organically and increasingly,
rather than being stifled.
You might find it interesting to compare your efforts so far
with the efforts of three school children. See figs 36 to 38.
Figure 36, page 102 shows the normal writing of a fourteen-year-
old boy who was described as reasonably bright, but messy, con-
fused, and mentally disorganised. The example of his linear
writing represents his 'best notes' and explains clearly why he
was described as he was. The mind map of English which he
completed in five minutes shows almost completely the reverse,
suggesting that we can often misjudge a child by the method in
which we require him to express himself.
Figure 37, page 103 is the mind map of a boy who twice failed O
level Economics and who was described by the teacher as having
enormous thinking and learning problems combined with an
almost total lack of knowledge of his subject. The map which
also was completed in five minutes, shows quite the reverse.
Figure 38, page 104 is a mind map done by an A Level grammar
school girl on pure Mathematics. When this map was shown to a
Professor of Mathematics he estimated that it was done by a
University Honours student and that it probably took two days to
complete. In fact it took the girl only twenty minutes. The map
enabled her to display an extraordinary creativity in a subject
which is normally considered dry, dull and oppressive. It could
have been even better if each line had contained only 'units' of
words instead of phrases. Her use of form and shape to augment
the words will give an indication of the diversity possible in these
structures. The following chapter extends this idea.
95
Draw your own mind map of chapter five
101
Personal Notes
105
C: Mind maps - advanced methods
and uses
Overview
· Models for the brain
· Technology and new insights into ourselves
· The left and right brain and mind mapping
· Advanced techniques
· Wider application of patterning techniques
106
Models of perception - brain - mind
As recently as the 1950s the camera provided the model for our
perception and mental imaging: the lens of the camera corres-
ponded to the lens of the eye, and the photographic plate to the
brain itself. See fig 39. This conception was held for some time
but was very inadequate. You can confirm this inadequacy by
doing the following exercises: in the way that one normally does
when drowsily day-dreaming, close your eyes and imagine your
favourite object. Having clearly registered the image on your in-
ner eye, perform the following activities.
· Rotate it in front of you
· Look at it from the top
· Look at it from underneath
· Change its colour at least three times
· Move it away as if it were seen from a long distance
· Bring it close again '
· Make it gigantic
· Make it tiny
· Totally change the shape of it
· Make it disappear
· Bring it back
These feats can be performed without much difficulty; the
apparatus and machinery of a camera could not even begin to
perform them.
photographic
camera lens plate
object
human eye
human brain
retina optic occipital
object nerve lobe
Fig 39 Contrary to earlier thought the brain operates in a much
more complex manner than the camera. See text this page.
107
Modern technology
Recent developments in more refined technology have fortu-
nately given us a much better analogy: the hologram.
In this technique, an especially concentrated light or laser
beam is split into two. One half of the ray is directed to the plate,
while the other half is bounced off the image and then directed
back to the other half of the ray. The special holographic plate
records the millions of fragments into which the rays shatter
when they collide. When dais plate is held up in front of laser
beams directed at special angles towards it, the original image is
recreated. Amazingly, it is not recreated as a flat picture on the
plate, but is perfectly duplicated as a three-dimensional ghost
object that hangs in space. If the object is looked at from above,
below or the side, it is seen in exactly the same way as the original
object would be seen.
Even more amazingly, if the original holographic plate is ro-
tated through 90 degrees, as many as 90 images can be recorded
on the same plate with no interference.
And to add still further to the extraordinary nature of this new
development, if the plate is taken and smashed to smithereens
with a hammer, each particle of the shattered plate will, when it
is placed in front of the specially direct lasers, still produce the
complete three-dimensional ghost.
The holograph thus becomes a far more reasonable model
than the camera for the way in which our brain works, and begins
to give us some idea of just how complex an organism it is that
we carry about with us.
But even this extremely refined piece of technology falls far
short of the unique capabilities of the brain. The holograph cer-
tainly approximates more closely the three-dimensional nature of
our imaginations, but its storage capacity is puny compared to
the millions of images that our brains can call up at an instant's
notice, and randomly. The holograph is also static. It cannot per-
form any of the directional exercises of the kind described on
pages 107 and 108 which the brain finds so easy and yet which
must involve the most unimaginably intricate machinery. And
even if the holograph were able to accomplish all this, it would
108
not be able to do what our minds can: to see its own self, with
eyes closed, performing the operations!
The above gives considerable cause for thought, and even our
most advanced sciences have as yet made little progress in this
most interesting area of current research.
Advanced mind maps
Observing that the brain handles information better if the in-
formation is designed to 'slot in', and observing also the informa-
tion from this chapter about the dimensional nature of the mind,
it follows that notes which are themselves more 'holographic'
and creative will be far more readily understood, appreciated and
recalled
There are many devices we can use to make such notes:
These can be used to show how concepts which appear
on different parts of a pattern are connected. The
arrow can be single or multi-headed and can show
backward and forward directions.
codes
Asterisks, exclamation marks, crosses and question
marks as well as many other indicators can be used next
to words to show connections or other 'dimensions'.
geometrical shapes
Squares, oblongs, circles and ellipses etc.... can be
used to mark areas or words which are similar in nature
- for example triangles might be used to show areas of
possible solution in a problem-solving pattern.
Geometrical shapes can also be used to show order of
importance. Some people, for example, prefer to use a
square always for their main centre, oblongs for the
ideas near the centre, triangles for ideas of next
importance, and so on.
artistic three dimension
Each of the geometrical shapes mentioned, and many
others, can be given perspective. For example, making
a square into a cube. The ideas printed in these shapes
will thus 'stand off the page.
109
creativity/images
Creativity can be combined with the use of dimension
by making aspects of the pattern fit the topic. One man,
for example, when doing a pattern on atomic physics,
used the nucleus of an atom and the electrons that
surrounded it, as the centre for his pattern.
colour
Colour is particularly useful as a memory and creative
aid. It can be used, like arrows, to show how concepts
which appear on different parts of the pattern are
connected. It can also be used to mark off the
boundaries between major areas of a pattern.
Mind Maps and the Left and Right Brain.
At this point it is useful to consider how recent research into the
brain adds strength to the points raised so far. In light of the fact,
as already outlined, that the brain handles information better if
the information is designed to 'slot in', consider the left and right
brain research of Roger Sperry and Robert Ornstein. This re-
search alone would lead you to conclude that a note taking and
thought-organisation technique designed to satisfy the needs of
the whole brain would have to include not only words, numbers,
order, sequence, and lines, but also colour, images, dimension,
symbols, and visual rhythms etc: in other words Mind Maps.
Fig 40 The left and right brain.
110
From whatever perspective one approaches the question, be it
from the nature of words and information, the function of recall,
holographic models of the brain, or recent brain research, the
conclusions in the end are identical - in order to fully utilise the
brain's capacity, we need to consider each of the elements that
add up to the whole, and integrate them in a unified way.
Mind maps - uses
The nature of mind maps is intimately connected with the func-
tion of the mind, and they can be used in nearly every activity
where thought, recall, planning or creativity are involved. Figure
41 is a mind map of the use of mind maps, showing this wide
variety of uses. Detailed explanation of each of these aspects
would of course take up a large book, but in the remainder of this
chapter I shall explain the application of maps to the speech writ-
ing, essay writing, examination type of task; to meetings and
communications, and to note taking.
Transforming a mind map to a speech, article etc.
Many people, when first shown mind maps, assume that they
cannot be used for any linear purpose, such as giving a talk or
writing an article. Nothing could be further from the truth. If you
refer to the mind map of this chapter on page 100, you will find
how such a transformation took place:
Once the map has been completed, the required information
is readily available. All that is necessary is to decide the final
order in which to present the information. A good mind map will
offer a number of possibilities. When the choice is being made,
each area of the map can be encircled with a different colour,
and numbered in the correct order. Putting this into written or
verbal form is simply a matter of outlining the major areas to be
covered, and then going through them point by point, following
the logic of the branched connections. In this way the problem of
redrafting and redrafting yet again is eliminated - all the gather-
ing and organising will have been completed at the map stage.
112
Using these techniques at Oxford University, students were able
to complete essays in one third of the previous time while receiv-
ing higher marks.
Note taking
It is advisable, when taking notes, to have two blank pages
ongoing at the same time. The left-hand page should be for
mapped information and the right-hand page for more linear or
graphic information such as formulas, special lists, and graphs
etc. See fig 42.
When taking notes, especially from lectures, it is important to
remember that key words and images are essentially all that is
Fig42 Recommended general form for note taking. Two pages should be
used concurrently, one for mind maps, the other for graphic or more linear
information. These example notes on body, mind and spirit may originally
'look messy' but they are in fact neater than traditionally 'neat' notes. See text
pages 112 and 114.
113
needed. It is also important to remember that the final structure
will not become apparent till the end. Any notes made will there-
fore probably be semi-final rather than final copy. The first few
words noted may be fairly disconnected until the theme of the
lecture becomes apparent. It is necessary to understand clearly
the value of so-called 'messy' as opposed to 'neat' notes, for
many people feel apprehension at having a scrawly, arrowed,
non-linear page of notes developing in front of them. 'Neat'
notes are traditionally those which are organised in an orderly
and linear manner. See fig 33 in the previous chapter. 'Messy'
notes are those which are 'untidy' and 'all over the page'. See fig
42. The word 'messy' used in this way refers to the look and not
to the content.
In note taking it is primarily the content and not the look that
is of importance. The notes which look 'neat' are, in informa-
tional terms, messy. As explained on pages 93 and 95, the key in-
formation is disguised, disconnected, and cluttered with many
informationally irrelevant words. The notes which look 'messy'
are informationally far neater. They show immediately the im-
portant concepts, the connections, and even in some cases the
crossings-out and the objections.
Mapped notes in their final form are usually neat in any case
and it seldom takes more than ten minutes to finalise an hour's
notes on a fresh sheet of paper. This final map reconstructing is
by no means a waste of time, and if the learning period has been
organised properly will fit in perfectly as the first review. See
pages 58 to 60.
Communications and meetings
Meetings, notably those for planning or problem solving, often
degenerate into situations where each person listens to the
others only in order to make his own point as soon as the pre-
vious speaker has finished. In such meetings many excellent
points are passed over or forgotten, and much time is wasted. A
further aggravation is that points which are finally accepted are
not necessarily the best, but are those made by the most vocifer-
ous or most important speakers.
114
These problems can be eliminated if the person who orga-
nises the meeting uses a mind map structure. On a board at the
front of the room the central theme of the discussion, together
with a couple of the sub themes, should be presented in basic
map form. The members of the meeting will have pre-
knowledge of what it is about, and will hopefully have come pre-
pared. As each member finishes the point he is making, he can
be asked to summarise it in key form, and to indicate where on
the overall mind map he thinks his point should be entered.
The following are the advantages of this approach:
1 The contribution of each person is registered and recorded
properly.
2 No information is lost.
3 The importance given to ideas will pertain more to what was
said than to who said it.
4 Digressions and long wafflings will be eliminated because
people will be talking more to the point.
5 After the meeting each individual will have a mapped record
and will therefore not have lost most of what is said by the fol-
lowing morning.
One further advantage of mind maps, especially in note taking
and communications, is that the individual is kept continually
and actively involved in the complete structure of what is going
on, rather than being concerned solely with 'getting down' the
last point made. This more complete involvement will lead to a
much greater critical and analytical facility, a much greater in-
tegration, a much greater ability to recall and a much greater
overall understanding.
Personal Notes
116
5.
The Buzan
organic study
method
The subject of Study is divided into three sections:
Introduction, Preparation, and Application.
A: Introduction
Overview
· Problems of 'getting down' to study
· Reasons for the fear and reluctance many people feel
when approaching study books
· Problems arising from the use of standard study
techniques
· New study techniques
117
Approaching the study situation - a problem
before you start
The Six - o'clock - In - The - Evening - Enthusiastic - Determined -
And-Well-Intentioned-Studier-Until-Midnight is a person with
whom you are probably already familiar. At 6 o'clock he ap-
proaches his desk, and carefully organises everything in prepa-
ration for the study period to follow. Having everything in place
he next carefully adjusts each item again, giving him time to
complete the first excuse: he recalls that in the morning he did
not have quite enough time to read all items of interest in the
newspaper. He also realises that if he is going to study it is best to
have such small items completely out of the way before settling
down to the task at hand.
He therefore leaves his desk, browses through the newspaper
and notices as he browses that there are more articles of interest
than he had originally thought. He also notices, as he leafs
through the pages, the entertainment section. At this point it will
seem like a good idea to plan for the evening's first break -
perhaps an interesting half-hour programme between 8 and 8.30
pm.
He finds the programme, and it inevitably starts at about 7
pm.
At this point, he thinks 'well, I've had a difficult day and it's
not too long before the programme starts, and I need a rest any-
way and the relaxation will really help me to get down to study-
ing. ...' He returns to his desk at 7.45 pm, because the beginning
of the next programme was also a bit more interesting than he
thought it would be.
At this stage, he still hovers over his desk tapping his book
reassuringly as he remembers that phone call to a friend which,
like the articles of interest in the newspapers, is best cleared out
of the way before the serious studying begins.
The phone call, of course, is much more interesting and
longer than originally planned, but eventually the intrepid studier
finds himself back at his desk at about 8.30 pm.
At this point in the proceedings he actually sits down at the
desk, opens the book with a display of physical determination,
and starts to read (usually page one) as he experiences the first
118
pangs of hunger and thirst. This is disastrous because he realises
that the longer he waits to satisfy the pangs, the worse they will
get, and the more interrupted his study concentration will be.
The obvious and only solution is a light snack. This, in its
preparation, grows like the associative structure of a mind map,
as more and more tasty items are linked to the central core of
hunger. The snack becomes a feast.
Having removed this final obstacle the desk is returned to
with the certain knowledge that this time there is nothing that
could possibly interfere with the dedication. The first couple of
sentences on page one are looked at again ... as the studier real-
ises that his stomach is feeling decidedly heavy and a general
drowsiness seems to have set in. Far better at this juncture to
watch that other interesting half-hour programme at 10 o'clock,
after which the digestion will be mostly completed and the rest
will enable him to really get down to the task at hand.
At 12 o'clock we find him asleep in front of the TV.
Even at this point, when he has been woken up by whoever
comes into the room, he will think that things have not gone too
badly, for after all he has had a good rest, a good meal, watched
some interesting and relaxing programmes, fulfilled his social
commitments to his friends, digested the day's information, and
got everything completely out of the way so that tomorrow, at 6
o'clock . . . .
The study book is a threat
The above episode is amusing, but the implications of it are sig-
nificant and serious.
On one level the story is encouraging because, by the very fact
that it is a problem experienced by everybody it confirms what
has long been suspected: that everyone is creative and inventive,
and that the feelings that many have about being uncreative are
not necessary. The creativity demonstrated in the example of the
reluctant student is not applied very usefully. But the diversity
and originality with which we all make up reasons for not doing
things suggests that each person has a wealth of talent which
could be applied in more positive directions!
119
Fig 43 At the present time information is being given more
importance and emphasis than the individual. As a result he is
being mentally swamped and almost literally 'weighed down' by it
all. Both the information and publication explosions are still
continuing at staggering rates, while the ability of the individual to
handle and study it all remains neglected. If he is ever to cope with
the situation he must learn not more 'hard facts' but new ways of
handling and studying the information - new ways of using his
natural abilities to learn, think, recall, create, and solve problems.
See also fig 45 and text page 125.
On another level the story is discouraging because it shows up
the wide-spread and underlying fear that most of us experience
when confronted with a study text.
This reluctance and fear arises from the examination-based
school system in which the child is presented with books on the
subjects he is 'taking' at school. He knows that text books are
'harder' than story books and novels; he also knows that they
represent a lot of work; and he further knows that he will be
tested on his knowledge of the information from the books.
120
The fact that the type of book is 'hard' is discouraging in it-
self. The fact that the book represents work is also discouraging,
because the child instinctively knows that he is unable to read,
note, and remember properly.
And the fact that he is going to be tested is often the most
serious of the three difficulties. It is well known that this threat can
completely disrupt the brain's ability to work in certain situa-
tions. The number of cases are enormous of people who literally
cannot write anything in an exam situation despite the fact that
they know their subject thoroughly - as are the number of cases
of people who, even though they are able to write some form of
answer, have gigantic mental blocks where whole areas of know-
ledge are completely forgotten during an exam period. And in
even more extreme cases many people have been known to
spend a whole two hour period writing frantically, assuming that
they were answering the question, but in fact repeating over and
over again either their own name or one word.
Faced with this kind of threat, which for many is truly terrify-
ing, the child has one of two choices: he can either study and
face one set of consequences, or not study and face a different
set of consequences. If he studies and does badly, then he has
proven himself 'incapable', 'unintelligent', 'stupid', a 'dunce' or
whatever the appropriate negative expression is at the time. Of
course this is not really the case, but he has no way of knowing
that it is the system which is not testing him properly, and not his
own ineptitude causing the 'failure'.
If he does not study, the situation is quite different. Con-
fronted with having failed a test or exam, he can immediately say
that of course he failed it because he 'didn't study and wasn't in-
terested in that kind of stuff anyway'.
By doing this, he solves the problem in a number of ways:
1 He avoids both the test and the threat to his self-esteem that
studying would involve;
2 He has a perfect excuse for failing;
3 He gets respect from the other children because he is daring to
attack a situation which is frightening to them. It is interesting to
note that such a child will often find himself in the position of a
leader.
121
It is also interesting to note that even those who do make the
decision to study will still reserve a little part of themselves for
behaving like the non-studier. The person who gets scores as
high as 80 or 90 per cent will also be found using exactly the
same excuses for not getting 100 per cent, as the non-studier
uses for failing.
Fig 44 In traditional education information is given or 'taught'
about the different areas of knowledge that surround the
individual. The direction and flow is from the subject to the
individual - he is simply given the information, and is expected to
absorb, learn and remember as much as he possibly can. See also fig
43 and text pages 119-123.
122
Old and new study approaches
The situations described above are unsatisfactory for everyone
concerned, and have arisen for various reasons, many of them
oudined in earlier parts of this book. One further and major
reason for poor study results lies in the way we have approached
both study techniques and the information we wanted people to
study.
We have surrounded the person with a confusing mass of
different subjects or 'disciplines' demanding that he learn, re-
member and understand a frightening array under headings such
as Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry, Biology, Zoology, Botany,
Anatomy, Physiology, Sociology, Psychology, Anthropology,
Philosophy, History, Geography, Trigonometry, Paleontology,
etc. In each of these subject areas the individual has been and is
still presented with series of dates, theories, facts, names, and
general ideas. See fig 44. What this really means is that we have
been taking a totally lopsided approach to study and to the way in
which a person deals with and relates to the information and
knowledge that surrounds him. See figs 44 and 45.
As can be seen from the figures we are concentrating far too
much on information about the 'separate' areas of knowledge.
We are also laying too much stress on asking the individual to
feed back facts in pre-digested order or in pre-set forms such as
standard examination papers or formal essays.
This approach has also been reflected in the standard study
techniques recommended in Schools, Universities, Institutes of
Further Education and text books. These techniques have been
'grid' approaches in which it is recommended that a series of
steps always be worked through on any book being studied. One
common suggestion is that any reasonably difficult study book
should always be read through three times in order to ensure a
complete understanding. This is obviously a very simple exam-
ple, but even the many more developed approaches tend to be
comparatively rigid and inflexible - simply standard systems to
be repeated on each studying occasion.
It is obvious that methods such as these cannot be applied
with success to every study book. There is an enormous differ-
ence between studying a text on Literary Criticism and studying
123
a text on Higher Mathematics. In order to study properly, a tech-
nique is needed which does not force the same approach to such
different materials.
First, it is necessary to start working from the individual out-
wards. Rather than bombarding him with books, formulas and
examinations we must begin to concentrate on teaching each
person how he or she can study most efficiently. We must teach
Fig 45 In the new forms of education, the previous emphases must
be reversed. Instead of first teaching the individual facts about
other things, we must first teach him facts about himself- facts
about how he can learn, think, recall, create, and solve problems
etc. See text page 125.
124
ourselves how our eyes work when we read, how we remember,
how we think, how we can learn more effectively, how we can
organise noting, how we can solve problems and in general how
we can best use our abilities, whatever the subject matter.
One is tempted to note here that in our society we have In-
struction Manuals and 'How To Do It' booklets on nearly every-
thing, including the simplest of machines. But when it comes to
the most complicated, complex, and important organism of all,
ourselves, we offer practically no help.
Most of the problems outlined in the first chapter will be eli-
minated when we finally do change the emphasis away from the
subject toward the individual and how he can select and understand
any information he wants to. People will be equipped to study and
remember whatever area of knowledge is interesting or necessary.
Things will not have to be 'taught to' or 'crammed in'. Each person
will be able to range subjects at his own pace, going for help and
personal supervision only when he realises it is necessary. See fig 45.
Yet another advantage of this approach is that it will make
both teaching and learning much easier, more enjoyable and
more productive. By concentrating on the individual and his abi-
lities we will finally and sensibly have placed the learning situa-
tion in its proper perspective.
Personal Notes
126
B: Preparation
The Organic Study Method is divided into two main sections:
Preparation and Application. Each of these sections is divided into
four sub sections:
Preparation Time
Amount
Knowledge
Questions
Application Overview
Preview
Inview
Review
It is important to note at the outset that although the main
steps are presented in a certain order, this order is by no means
essential and can be changed, subtracted from and added
to as the study texts warrant.
This section will deal with the Preparation:
Overview
· The browse
· Deciding on the best use of time
· Defining the areas of study (amount)
· Gathering all the information the reader currently has
about the subject
· Defining goals and reasons for studying in the first place
127
larly useful method for browsing is that as outlined in the Chap-
ter on reading more efficiently and faster, Exercise 7b, page 41 -
using the visual guide to scan each page at four seconds a page,
continuing, not for only one minute, but until the complete book
has been surveyed.
Once the browse has been completed, the four major steps of
preparation can then be dealt with far more effectively.
Time and amount
These two aspects can be dealt with simultaneously because the
theory behind them both is similar.
The first thing to do when sitting down to study a text book is
to decide on the period of time to be devoted to it. Having done
this, decide what amount to cover in the time allocated.
The reason for insisting on these two initial steps is not arbit-
rary, and is supported by the findings of the Gestalt Psycholog-
ists, and some of the most recent findings in Systems Theory
(before reading on, look at figure 46).
The Gestalt Psychologists discovered that the human brain
has a very strong tendency to complete things - thus most read-
ers will find that they labelled the shapes in figure 46 straight
line, cylinder, square, elipse or oval, zig-zag line, circle, triangle,
wavy or curved line, rectangle. In fact the 'circle' is not a circle
but a 'broken circle'. Many actually see this broken circle as a
circle. Others see it as a broken circle but assume that the artist
intended to complete it.
128
A more abstract example of our general desire to complete
things is our universal tendency as children to build up a lan-
guage that helps us to make sense of, and form completed ideas
of, our surroundings.
In study, making a decision about Time and Amount gives us
immediate chronological and volume terrain, as well as an end
point or goal. This has the added advantage of enabling the
proper linkages to be made rather than encouraging a wandering
off in more disconnected ways.
An excellent comparison is that of listening to a lecturer. A
good lecturer who is attempting to expound a lot of difficult
material will usually explain his starting and his ending points
and will often indicate the amount of time he intends to spend on
each area of his presentation. The audience will automatically
find his lecture easier to follow because they have guide-lines
within which to work.
It is advisable to define physically the amount to be read by
placing reasonably large paper markers at the beginnings and
end of the section chosen. This enables the reader to refer back
and forward to the information in the amount chosen.
A further advantage of making these decisions at the outset is
that the underlying fear of the unknown is avoided. If a large
study book is plunged into with no planning, the reader will be
continually oppressed by the number of pages he eventually has
to complete. Each time he sits down he will be aware that he still
has 'a few hundred pages to go' and will be studying with this as
a constant and real background threat. If, on the other hand, he
has selected a reasonable number of pages for the time he is
going to study, he will be reading with the knowledge that the
task he has set himself is easy and can certainly be completed.
The difference in attitude and performance will be marked.
There are still further reasons for making these time and
amount decisions which are concerned with the distribution of
the reader's effort as-time goes on.
Imagine that you have decided to study for two hours and that
the first half-an-hour has been pretty difficult, although you have
been making some progress. At this point in time you find that
understanding begins to improve and that your progress seems
to be getting better and faster.
130
Would you pat yourself on the back and take a break?
Or would you decide to keep the new and better rhythm going
by studying on for a while until you began to lose the new im-
petus?
Ninety per cent of people asked those questions would carry
on. Of those who would take a break, only a few would recom-
mend the same thing to anyone else!
And yet surprisingly the best answer is to take a break. The
reason for this can be seen by referring back to the discussion in
the chapter on Memory and the amount that is recalled from a
period of learning. Despite the fact that understanding may be
continually high, the recall of that understanding will be getting
worse if the mind is not given a break, thus the graph, fig 18, is
particularly relevant in the study situation. It is essential that any
time period for studying be broken down into 20-40 minute sec-
tions with small rests in between. See fig 19. The common student
practice of swotting five hours at a stretch for examination pur-
poses should become a thing of the past, for understanding is not
the same as remembering, as all too many failed examination
papers give witness.
The breaks themselves are also important for a number of
reasons:
1 They give the body a physical rest and a chance to relax. This
is always useful in a learning situation, and releases the build-
up of tension.
2 They enable recall and understanding to 'work together' to
the best advantage.
3 They allow a brief period of time for the just-studied in-
formation completely to relate each part of itself to the other
part - to intra-integrate. See fig 21.
This last point also relates to the Memory chapter and the
graph on forgetting as time progresses. During each break the
amount of knowledge that can immediately be recalled from the
section just studied will increase and will be at a peak as the next
section is commenced. This means that not only will more be re-
called because the time period itself is best, but also that even
more will be recalled because of the rest period.
To assist this even further, do a quick review of what you have
read and a preview of what you are about to read at the beginning
and end of each study period.
It has taken a number of pages to explain the necessity of de-
ciding on a period of time and on an amount to be covered, but
remember that the decisions themselves are extremely brief and
will usually become automatic as you near completion of your
browse. When these decisions have been made the next step can
be taken:
Noting of knowledge on the subject
Having decided on the amounts to be covered, next jot down as
much as you know on the subject as fast as you can. No more
than two minutes should be devoted to the exercise. Notes
should be in key words and in creative pattern form.
The purpose of this exercise is to improve concentration, to
eliminate wandering, and to establish a good mental 'set'. This
last term refers to getting the conscious mind filled with impor-
tant rather than unimportant information. If you have spent two
minutes searching your memory banks for pertinent information,
you will be far more attuned to the text material, and will be far
less likely to continue thinking about the strawberries and cream
you are going to have after.
From the time limit of five minutes on this exercise it is ob-
vious that a person's entire knowledge is not required on the pat-
tern - the two minute exercise is intended purely to activate the
storage system and to set the mind off in the right direction.
One question which will arise is 'what about the difference if I
know almost nothing on the subject or if I know an enormous
amount?' If knowledge in the area is great, the five minutes
should be spent forming a pattern of the major divisions, theories
and names etc. connected with the subject. As the mind can flash
through information much faster than the hand can write it, all
the minor associations will still be mentally 'seen' and the proper
mental set and direction will be established.
If the knowledge of the subject is almost nothing, the two mi-
nutes should be spent patterning those few items which are
132
known, as well as any other information which seems in any way
at all to be connected. This will enable the reader to get as close
as he possibly can to the new subject, and will prevent him from
feeling totally lost as so many do in this situation.
Apart from being immediately useful in study, a continued
practice with patterning information gives a number of more
general advantages. First, the individual gains by gathering
together his immediate and current state of knowledge on areas
of interest. In this way he will be able to keep much more up to
date with himself and will actually know what he knows, rather
than being in a continually embarrassing position of not knowing
what he knows - the 'I've got it on the tip of my tongue', 'if only I
could make sense of what I know' syndrome.
In addition this continued practice of recalling and integrating
ideas gives enormous advantage in situations where such abilities
are essential: examinations, impromptu speeches and answering
on the spot questions, to name but a few.
Once the five-minute period is up, the next stage should be
moved to immediately.
Asking questions - defining goals
Having established the current state of knowledge on the sub-
ject, it is next advisable to decide what you want from the book.
This involves defining the questions you want answered during
the reading. The questions should be asked in the context of
goals aimed for and should, like the noting of knowledge, be
done in key word and mind map form. Many prefer to use a
different coloured pen for this section, and rather than starting a
new map they add their questions to the already existing map on
current knowledge.
This exercise, again like that for noting knowledge, is based
on the principle of establishing proper mental sets. It should also
take not much more than five minutes at the outset, as questions
can be redefined and added to as the reading progresses.
A standard experiment to confirm this approach takes two
groups of people who are generally equal in terms of age, educa
tion, aptitude etc. Each group is given the same study text and is
given enough time to complete the whole book.
Group A is told that they are going to be given a completely
comprehensive test on everything in the book and that they must
study accordingly.
Group B is told that they will be tested on two or three major
themes which run through the book, and that they also must
study accordingly.
Both groups are in fact tested on the entire text, a situation
which one would immediately think unfair to the group that had
been told they would be tested only on the main themes.
One might also think that in this situation the second group
would do better on questions about the themes they had been
given, the first group better on other questions and that both
groups might have a similar final score.
To the surprise of many, the second group not only does bet-
ter on questions about the themes, but they achieve higher total
scores which include better marks on all parts of the test.
The reason for this is that the main themes act like great
grappling hooks through the information, attaching everything
else to them. In other words the main questions and goals acted
as associative and linking centres to which all other information
became easily attached.
The group instructed to get everything had no centres at all to
connect new information to, and because of this were groping
with no foundations through the information. It is much like a
situation where a person is given so much choice that he ends up
making no decision; the paradox where attempting to get every-
thing gains nothing.
Asking questions and establishing goals can be seen, like the
section preceding it, to become more and more important as the
theory behind becomes better understood. It should be empha-
sised that the more accurately these questions and goals are
established, the more able the reader will be to perform well in
the Application section of the Organic Study Method.
134
Personal Notes
135
C: Application
Overview
· Study Overview
· Preview
· Inview
· Review
· Note taking
· Continuing review
· Summary
137
Study Overview
One of the interesting facts about people using study books is
that most, when given a new text, start reading on page one. It is
not advisable to start reading a new study text on the first page.
The following situation is a parallel illustration of this point:
Imagine that you are a fanatic jigsaw-puzzle-doer. A friend
arrives on your doorstep with a gigantic box wrapped in paper
and tied with string, and tells you that it's a present: 'the most
beautiful and complex jigsaw puzzle yet divised by man!'. You
thank her, and as you watch her walk away down the front path,
you decide that from that moment on you are going to devote
yourself entirely to the completion of the puzzle.
Before continuing, note in precise detail the steps you would take
from that point on in order to complete the task.
Now check your own answers with the following list compiled
from my students:
1 Go back inside the house.
2 Take off the string.
3 Take off the paper.
4 Dispose of string and paper.
5 Look at the picture.
6 Read the instructions, concentrating on number of
pieces and overall dimensions of the puzzle.
7 Estimate and organise amount of time necessary for
completion.
8 Plan breaks and meals!
9 Find surface of appropriate dimensions for puzzle.
10 Open box.
11 Empty contents of box onto surface.
12 If pessimistic, check number of pieces.
13 Turn all pieces" right side up.
14 Find edge and corner pieces.
15 Sort out colour areas.
16 Fit 'obvious' bits and pieces together.
138
17 Continue to fill in.
18 Leave 'difficult' pieces to end (for reason that as the overall
picture becomes more clear, and the number of pieces used
increases, so does the probability increase that the difficult
pieces will fit in much more easily when there is greater con-
text into which they can fit).
19 Continue process until completion.
20 Celebrate!
This jigsaw analogy can be applied directly to study, in the first
instance making it clearer why it is so important not to com-
mence studying on page one, as doing so would be like finding
the bottom left-hand corner, and insisting to yourself that the
entire picture be built up step by step from that corner only.
What is essential in a reasonable approach to study texts,
especially difficult ones, is to get a good idea of what's in them
before plodding on into a learning catastrophe. The overview is
designed to perform this task, and may be likened to looking at the
picture, reading the instructions, and finding the edge and corner
pieces of the puzzle. What this means in the study context is that you
should scour the book for all material not included in the regular
body of the print, using your visual guide as you do so. Areas of the
book to be covered in your overview include:
results tables subheadings
summaries table of contents dates
conclusions marginal notes italics
indents il lustrations graphs
glossaries capitalised words footnotes
back cover photographs statistics
The function of this is to provide you with a good knowledge of
the graphic sections of the book, not skimming the whole thing,
but selecting specific areas for relatively comprehensive cover-
age. See fig 47.
139
It is extremely important to note again that throughout the over-
view a pen, pencil, or other form of visual guide should always be
used.
amount of material to be studied
sections of a study text to be covered by overview
Fig 47 Sections of a study text to be covered by overview. See text page
139.
The reason for this can best be explained by reference to a
graph. If the eye is unaided, it will simply fixate briefly on general
areas of the graph, then move off, leaving only a vague visual
memory and an interference to that memory because the eye
movement will not have 'registered' the same pattern as the
graph.
Fig 48 Example pattern of graph to be studied.
If a visual aid is used, the eye will more nearly approximate
the flow of the graph and the memory will be strengthened by
each of the following inputs:
1 The visual memory itself.
2 The remembered eye movement approximating the graph
shape.
140
Fig49 Standard pattern of unguided eye movement on graph
causing conflicting memory of shape of graph.
3 The memory of the movement of the arm or hand in tracing
the graph (Kinaesthetic memory).
4 The visual memory of the rhythm and movement of the
tracer.
The overall recall resulting from this practice is far superior to
that of a person who reads without any visual guide. It is interest-
ing to note that top accountants often use their pens to guide
their eyes across and down columns and rows of figures. They
do this naturally because any very rigid linear eye movement is
difficult to maintain with the unaided eye.
Preview
The second section of study application is the preview - covering
all that material not covered in the overview. In other words the
paragraphed, language content of the book. This can be likened
to organising the colour areas of your puzzle.
During the preview, concentration should be directed to the
beginnings and ends of paragraphs, sections, chapters, and even
whole texts, because information tends to be concentrated at the
beginnings and ends of written material.
141
If you are studying a short academic paper or a complex study
book, the Summary Results and Conclusion sections should al-
ways be read first. These sections often include exactly those
essences of information that you are searching for, enabling you
to grasp that essence without having to wade through a lot of
time-wasting material.
Having gained the essence from these sections, simply check
that they do indeed summarise the main body of the text.
In the preview, as with the overview, you are not fully reading
all the material, but simply concentrating once again on special
areas. See fig 50.
amount of material to be studied
sections to be covered by preview after overview
Fig 50 Sections to be covered by preview after overview. See text this
page.
The value of this section cannot be overemphasised. A case in
point is that of a student taught at Oxford who had spent four
months struggling through a 500-page tome on psychology. By
the time he had reached page 450 he was beginning to despair
because the amount of information he was 'holding on to' as he
tried to get to the end was becoming too much - he was literally
beginning to drown in the information just before reaching his
goal.
It transpired that he had been reading straight through the
book, and even though he was nearing the end, did not know
what the last chapter was about. It was a complete summary of
the book! He read the section and estimated that had he done so
at the beginning he would have saved himself approximately 70
hours in reading time, 20 hours in note-taking time and a few
hundred hours of worrying.
In both the overview and preview you should very actively
select and reject. Many people still feel obliged to read every-
thing in a book even though they know it is not necessarily relevant
to them. It is far better to treat a book in the way most people treat
lecturers. In other words if the lecturer is boring skip what he says,
142
and if he is giving too many examples, is missing the point or is
making errors, select, criticise, correct, and disregard as
appropriate.
Inview
After the overview and preview, and providing that still more in-
formation is required, inview the material. This involves 'filling
in' those areas still left, and can be compared with the filling in
process of the jigsaw puzzle, once the boundaries and colour
areas have been established. It is not necessarily the major read-
ing, as in some cases most of the important material will have
been covered in the previous stages.
difficult areas or areas where knowledge not complete
Fig 51 Sections covered after inview has been completed. See text this
It should be noted from fig 50 that there are still certain sec-
tions which have been left incomplete even at the inview stage.
This is because it is far better to move over particularly difficult
points than to batter away at them immediately from one side
only.
Once again the comparison with the jigsaw puzzle becomes
clear: racking your brains to find the pieces that connect to your
'difficult bit' is a tension-producing waste of time, and jamming
the piece in, or cutting it with a pair of scissors so that it does fit
(assuming or pretending you understand in context when really
you don't) is similarly futile. The difficult sections of a study text
are seldom essential to that which follows them, and the advan-
tages of leaving them are manifold:
1 If they are not immediately struggled with, the brain is given
that most important brief period in which it can work on them
subconsciously. (Most readers will have experienced the ex-
amination question which they 'can't possibly answer' only to
143
find on returning to the question later that the answer pops
out and often seems ridiculously simple).
2 If the difficult areas are returned to later, they can be
approached from both sides. Apart from its obvious advan-
tages, considering the difficult area in context (as with the dif-
ficult bit in the jigsaw) also enables the brain's automatic
tendency to fill in gaps to work to greater advantage.
3 Moving on from a difficult area releases the tension and men-
tal floundering that often accompanies the traditional
approach.
difficult
section
Fig52 'Jumping over' a stumbling block usually enables the reader
to go back to it later on with more information from 'the other
side'. The block itself is seldom essential for the understanding of
that which follows it. See text this page.
An adjunct to this last point is that it tends to make studying a
more creative process.
Looking at the normal historical development of any disci-
pline, it is found that a fairly regular series of small and logically
connected steps are interrupted by great leaps forward.
The propounders of these giant new steps have in many cases
'intuited' them (combining left and right brain functions, as out-
lined in chapter 1), and afterwards been met with scorn. Galileo
and Einstein are examples. As they then explained their ideas
step by step, others gradually and progressively understood,
some early in the explanation, and others as the innovator neared
his conclusion.
In the same manner in which the innovator jumps over an
enormous number of sequential steps, and in the same manner
in which those who first realised his conclusions did so, the stu-
dier who leaves out small sections of study will be giving a grea-
ter range to his natural creative and understanding abilities. See
fig53.
144
Fig53 Historical development of ideas and creative innovations. See
text page 144.
Review
Having completed the overview, preview and inview, and if
further information is still required, a review stage is necessary.
In this stage simply fill in all those areas as yet incomplete,
and reconsider those sections marked as noteworthy. In most
cases it will be found that not much more than 70 per cent of that
initially considered relevant will finally be used. Then complete
your mind map notes.
Noting
Noting while studying takes two main forms:
1 Notes made on the text itself.
2 A growing mind map.
Notes you make in the book itself can include:
1 Underlining.
2 Personal thoughts generated by the text.
3 Critical comments.
145
Fig54 Techniques for marking text
4 Marginal straight lines for important or note-worthy material.
5 Curved or wavey marginal lines to indicate unclear or difficult
material.
6 Question marks for areas that you wish to question or that you
find questionable.
7 Exclamation marks for outstanding items.
8 Your own symbol code for items and areas that relate to your
own specific and general objectives.
If the book is not valuable, markings can be made in colour
codes. If the book is a cherished volume, then markings can be
made with a very soft pencil. If the pencil is soft enough, and if a
very soft eraser is used, the damage to the book will be less than
that caused by the finger and thumb as they turn a page.
Mind Mapping structure of the text as you progress through it
is very similar to building up the picture of the jigsaw puzzle as
you fit in bit by bit. Ideally the bulk of Mind Map noting should
take place during the latter stages of study, as in the earlier stages
it is very difficult to know that which is definitely note-worthy, and
subsequently unnecessary noting can be avoided.
It is best to start with a central image that captures the essence
of that which you are studying, and from that central image, to
branch out with the major sub-subject headings or chapter head-
ings forming the central arms from which the secondary and
tertiary levels of your note taking will emanate. Re-read now 'Not-
ing' section starting on page 71.
The advantage -of building up a Mind Map as you progress
through the study text is that you externalise and integrate a lot
of information that would otherwise be 'up-in-the-air'. The
growing Mind Map also allows you to refer back quickly to areas
146
you have previously covered, rather than having to thumb
through pages already read.
It will enable you after a reasonable amount of basic study, to
see just where the areas of confusion in your subject are, and to
see also where your subject connects with other subjects. As
such it will place you in the creative situation of being able to: in-
tegrate the known; realise the relevance to other areas; and to
make appropriate comment where confusion and debate still ex-
ist. The final stage of your study will include the completion and
integration of any notes from your text with the Mind Map,
which will act as your basis for ongoing study and review.
When you have completed this final stage, you should, as did
our imaginery jigsaw puzzle fanatic, celebrate! This may sound
humorous, but it is also serious: if you associate the completion
of study tasks with personal celebration, the context of your study
will become increasingly more pleasant, and thus the probability
of your studying far greater.
Once your study programme is well underway, it is advisable
to keep enormous 'Central' Mind Maps which summarise and
overview the main branches and structures of your subject areas.
Continuing Review
Apart from the immediate review, a continuing review pro-
gramme is essential, and should be constructed in the light of the
knowledge we have concerning memory as discussed in the
chapter on Memory.
It was seen that memory did not decline immediately after a
learning situation, but actually rose before levelling off and then
plummeting.
Fig55 Graph showing that memory actually rises after learning,
before declining sharply. See text this page.
147
This graph can be warped to your advantage by reviewing just
at that point where the memory starts to fall. A review here, at
the point of highest memory and integration, will keep the high
point up for another one or two days and so on as explained on
page 58, see also fig 22.
Fig56 This graph shows how quickly forgetting takes place after
something has been learned. It also shows how review can 'warp'
this graph to enormous advantage. See text this page.
The Organic Study Method:
summary
The entire Organic Study Method must be seen not as a step by
step progression, but as a series of inter-related aspects of
approaching study material. It is quite possible to switch and
change the order from the one given here. The amount to be cov-
ered may be decided upon before the period of time; the subject
matter may be known before the time and amount are decided
upon and consequently the knowledge spray pattern could be
completed first; the questions can be asked at the preparation
stage or after any one of the latter stages; the overview can be eli-
minated in books where it is inappropriate, or repeated a number
of times if the subjects were mathematics or physics. (One stu-
dent found that it was easier to read four chapters of post-degree
mathematics 25 times per week for four weeks quickly using the
survey technique, than to struggle through one formula at a time.
He was of course applying to its extreme, but very effectively, the
point made about skipping over difficult areas); a preview can be
eliminated or broken down into separate sections; and the inview
and review can be variously extended or eliminated.
148
In other words each subject, and each book of each subject,
can be confidently approached in the manner best suited to it.
To each book you will bring the knowledge that whatever the
difficulties, you possess the fundamental understanding to
choose the appropriate and necessarily unique approach.
Study is consequently made a personal, interactive, con-
tinually changing and stimulating experience, rather than a rigid,
impersonal and tiresomely onerous task.
It should also be noted that despite the apparently greater
number of 'times the book is being read', this is not the case. By
using the Organic Study Method you will be on average reading
most sections once only and will then be effectively reviewing
those sections considered important. A pictorial representation
can be seen in fig 57.
Fig57 'Number of times' book is covered using Organic Study
Method. See text this page.
By contrast, the 'once through' reader is not reading it once
through but is reading it an enormous number of times. He
thinks he is reading it through once only because he takes in
once piece of information after another. He does not realise that
his regressions, back-skipping, re-reading of difficult sentences,
general disorganisation and forgetting because of inadequate re-
view, result in an actual reading of the book or chapter as many
as ten times.
Fig58 'Number of times' book is covered using traditional 'once
through' reading techniques. See text this page.
149
Afterword
As you approach the end of Use Your Head I hope that you will
be realising that it is not the end, but the real beginning. With the
physical beauty and complexity of your brain, and its enormous
intellectual and emotional powers, with your ability to absorb in-
formation and to manage the memorisation of that information,
and with the new techniques for allowing your brain to express
and organise itself in matters which are more comprehensibly
attuned to the way you function, reading, studying, learning, and
life in general should become what they-can be: delightful and
flowing processes that bring not pain and frustration, but plea-
sure and fulfilment.
Anyone interested in further reading or in courses dealing with
the subject covered in Use your head can contact the author c/o
BBC Publications,
35 Marylebone High Street,
London, W1M 4AA.
150
Personal Notes
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154
Index
Anokin, Pyotr 16
Assimilation 28,29
Atom 16,17,20
Baby 22
Behaviour 20
Berkeley Creativity Study 21
Biology 13,123,124
Brain 12-16,20,23,28,29,36,56, 61,77, 80,86,88,91,93,106,107,108,
109, no, 121,128,143,144,150
Céezanne 15
Chemistry 13,16,123,124
Communication 16,28,87,112,114,115
Comprehension 27,30
Concentration 21,29,34,59,132,141
Creativity 21,23,68,81,86,92,95,109, no, 112,119,124,144,145
Einstein 14
Extra-integration 28
Eye, the 20,25-41,125,140
Hemispheres (brain) 14
Imagination 14,15, 20, 65,108
Intelligence/I.Q. 20,21,22,61,88,121
Interconnections (brain) 16
Intra-integration 28,29,131
Key concepts 77-84, 92
Key words 21, 68,77-84,114,132,133
Knowledge 12,13,22,28, 29, 60, 63,120,122,131,132,133,139
Learning 20,22, 26, 27,45-48,53-60, 63,114,122,124,125,131,147,148
Logic 14,15
Mathematics 13,15,23,123,124,148
Meetings 112,114,115
Memory 12,16,21,23,43-69, 82,84,121,122,125,131,140,141,147,148
Mind 13,20,21,33,53,55, 62,81, 87,90,93,107,109,132
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Mind maps 16,86-115,145-47
Mnemonics 63-69,84
Motivation 20,37,38
Multi-ordinate Nature of Meaning 80,90,93
Neuron 16,17
Note-taking 15,16,56,60,71-115,132,145-47
Ornstein, Robert 14,15,109
Perception 36,38
Physics 123,124,148
Picasso 15
Potential 13,16
Problems 26-29,30,32,93,115,117,121
Psychology 123,124
Reading 25-41,121,125,149,150
Recall 27,28,45-48,53-60,63,68,76,77,82,86,92,93,109-115,124,131,
i33» 141
Recognition 28,29
Retention 27,28
Review 56,57,60-62,92,96,114,132,145-49
Speeches 87,88,93,112,133
Speed reading 30,34-41
Sperry, Roger 14,15,109
Study, Organic 21,33,38,117-151
Thinking 20,23,28,60,86,88,92,124
Understanding 33,45,53-56,60,90,109,115,125,130,131,144
Universe 13,15,16,17,18,19
Vinci, Leonardo da 15
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